L 791 
.H4 C5 
1911 
Copy 1 



REPORT 





L 





TERRITORY OF HAWAII 



APPOINTED UNDER AUTHORITY OF THE JOINT 

RESOLUTION PASSED BY THE 

LEGISLATURE OF 1909 




Honolulu 

Bulletin Publishing Co. , Ltd. 

1911 



REPORT 





L 





TERRITORY OF HAWAII 



APPOINTED UNDER AUTHORITY OF THE JOINT 

RESOLUTION PASSED BY THE 

LEGISLATURE OF 1909 



Honolulu 

Bulletin Pubijshing Co., Ltd. 

1911 



X W^' ^ 

\^^.^.^^ 



0. ^' 






ERRATA 



The following should be inserted in the proposed bill as Section 6, 
and the numbers of Sections 6, 7 and 8, as they now appear, changed 
to corresrwnd. 

'Section 0. The Trea^surer of the Temtorv shall, from 
time to time as may l>e necessary, pay over to the Treasurer of 
the several Counties, and the Treasurer of the City and County 
of Honolulu, as the case may be, the amounts approved by the 
Legislature for the ittiins of the ''Special Fund" of the budget 
for "New Buildings (school houst^s, cottages and outbuild- 
ings)" and for ''Repairs and maintenance of buildings and 
grounds and new grounds". Such amounts shall constitute and 
be held as special funds in tlie treasunes of the said several 
counties and the city and county of Honolulu and shall \xi ex- 
pended by their respective Boards of Supervisors only for tlie 
purposes approved by the Legislature. New buildings shall be 
erected on locations and in accordance with plans and specifica- 
tions approved by the Dei)artment of Public Instruction. The 
other items constituting the school budget shall be expended 
from time to time on vouchers approved by the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



COMMISSION'S REPORT. 

Page. 

Commission's Convictions . .1 3 

One Per Cent. Tax 5 

Commission's Proposal , 5 

School Budget 6 

Providing the Funds ^ 

Poll Tax. 

Income from Public Lands 

Property Tax. 

Permanent Fund. 

Continuing Appropriations 8 

Reasons Why 9 

Apportionment 11 

Territory and County H 

Local Control— School Agent 11 

Summary 13 

Federal Appropriation 15 



An Act 



17 



Work of Commission 19 



APPENDIX 



HAWAIIAN SCHOOL FACTS. 

Page. 

Enrollment of Hawaii's Schools, 10 Years •. 22 

Amounts Spent on Public Schools Exclusive of New Build- 
ings from Loan Fund, 10 Years. 

Cost of Instruction in Public Schools Per Capita, 10 Years...... 23 

Teachers' Salaries, 1909. 

Overcrowded Rooms in Regular Public Schools, June, 1909 24 

Additional Teachers Needed. 
Comparative Increase Pupils and Teachers in Public Schools, 10 

Years 25 

Scope and Purpose of Manual and Industrial Training in the 
Public Schools. 

Schools Having Domestic Science Department 26 

Manual Work In Public Schools, 1908-1909. 

Printing Department in Public Schools 27 

.Agricultural Work in Public Schools 27 

Sewing in Public Schools 28 

Lace and Weaving in Public Schools 29 

The Problems of Race in Teaching 29 

Schools Which Have Adopted the School County or City Plan 31 
New Buildings Needed for School Purposes at Beginning of Pres- 
ent Biennial Period 33 

Need of Medical Inspection in Schools of Hawaii 34 

Age, Attendance Compulsory and Voluntary — Public Schools, 

Hawaii — Compulsory Six to Fifteen Years 36 

Inadequate School Accommodations a Cause of Juvenile Delin- 
quency 38 

Taxes Collected 39 

Expenditures for School Purposes, "Hawaii" 40 

EJxpenditures for School Purposes, "United States" 41 

Education in the Hawaiian Islands 70 

Public Lands and Public Education in Hawaii 73 

Hawaii School Revenue, 1850-1896 72 

Point of View of Hawaii Commissioners on Education of Aliens, 

1899 77 

Agricultural and Industrial Pursuits in School 123 

Apportionment of School Funds in Hawaii 130 

Question of Local Funds 132 



Page. 
Amounts Appropriated, 1905 137 

Salary Schedule 1 38 

Average Expenditure for Ten Years, 1898-1908 140 

Enrollment in Public Schools of Hawaii 142 

UNITED STATES SCHOOL FACTS. 

EXPENDITURE FOR SCHOOL PURPOSE'S, UNITED STATES. 

Duty of the State to Educate Its Citizens 43 

The Public School Is a State and Not a Local or Municipal In- 
stitution 44 

The Public Lands and Public Education 46 

The Financing of Public Education 49 

Method of Taxation for School Purposes in Indiana 67 

Technical Secondary Education in Agriculture, Merchanic Arts, 

and Home Economics 79 

Our Chilldren, Our Schools, and Our Industries 95 

More Useful Schools 122 

Apportionment of School Funds in America 125 

Enrollment in Public Schools of 100 American Cities 141 



Honolulu, T. II., December 10th, 1910. 

Hon. Waltek F. Fkear, 
Governor of Hawaii, 
Honolulu. 

Sir: — The Public School Fund Conuuission herewith sub- 
uiits its final report made under authority of the Joint Resolu- 
tion of April 28th, 1909, and an Act embodying its conclusions. 

In addition to the t>eneral re]5ort is submitted a considerable 
amount of data having a direct l)earing on the work delegated 
to the (\jmuiission. Some cpiestion has arisen as to the ad- 
visability of printing all this matter on account of its making 
too large a volume Avhich would not 1k' generally read. The 
Commission begs to suggest that the information contained in 
this report has a direct bearing on its conclusions and will be 
of im])ortance when the sub](>ct is u[) before the Legislature 
for discussion. Therefore, we would respectfully suggest that 
the documents accompanying the report be printed so that 
there may be one coj)y for each member of the Legislature and 
a reasonalile nundjer for general distribution among those in- 
terested in the pidjlic schools. 



Ilesj)ectfully submitted. 



W. A. BOWEN, 

Secretary. 



SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION'S PLAN FOR FINANCING 
HAWAII'S PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



Hon. Walter F. Feear, 
Grovernor of Hawaii, 
Honolulu. 

Sir: — The Public School Fund Commission, acting under 
authority of the Joint Resolution of the Legislature of 1909 
of the Territory of Hawaii, lierewith submits its conclusions 
and proposed legislation to carry out the findings of the Com- 
mission. The Joint Eesolution of the Legislature directing the 
work of the Commission, is as follows: 

"JOINT RESOLUTION. 

"BE IT RESOLVED by the Legislature of the Territory of Hawaii, 
that the Governor of the -Territory shall as soon as practicable, after 
the approval of this resolution, appoint a commission of three mem- 
bers, who shall be experienced and competent persons, to be known 
as the 'SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION' who shall thoroughly examine 
and investigate the methods of raising and apportioning school funds 
elsewhere and who shall consider ways and means for the revision and 
betterment of the methods now employed in this Territory for such 
purpose. 

"The Commissioners shall serve without pay but the sum of Two 
Hundred and Fifty ($250.00) Dollars is hereby appropriated for its 
expenses. 

"The Commission shall not later than .July 1, 1910, report to the 
Governor their conclusions, with their recommendations pertaining 
thereto and such bill or bills as it may deem necessary for the effectu- 
ation of such recommendations. 

"Approved this 28th day of April, A. D., 1909. 

"(Signed) WALTER F. PREAR, 
"Governor of the Territory of Hawaii." 

The Commission finds : 

First: That throughout the American Mainland the public 
school has a recognized prior claim upon the revenues of the 
country, in the National, State and Municipal divisions. 



Second: That the (Iciiiaiids ul" puljlic (■(lucatiuii are prin- 
cipally met by a specific tax on real property and personal prop- 
ei'ty levied in siitiicient amount to meet the requirements of the 
public schools. Only in the ])ackward communities are the 
needs of the developing youth of the country, in common school 
education, cut and pared and pinche<l according to an arbitrary 
dictum of what share of the income shall be used for education- 
al purposes. 

TiiiEu: The income from the public lands is almost in- 
variably turned over, in a large measure, at least to the cause 
of education. A part goes to the common schools and a liberal 
portion is devoted to higher education as developed in the col- 
leges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 

The Commission believes that the needs of the public schools 
in this Territory should be met by a specific tax up<m real 
property and personal property, supplemented by fifty per 
cent of the income from public lands and water leases, and 
by setting aside as a separate fund the money derived from 
the personal school tax that now goes into the general realiza- 
tions of the Territory. 

This Commission believes that the public schools should be 
cared for first. The taxes should be levied, the income ad- 
justed, and the ai)propriations made to meet the legitimate re- 
quirements of the department of public instruction. This 
will secure for the children of Hawaii an ade(juate and train- 
ed teaching force, modern equipment, industrial training and 
commodious permanent school houses. The Territory should 
never repeat the record of recent history when our pub- 
lic schools, and therefore the coming men and women of these 
islands, were the victims of a short-sighted policy that sacri- 
ficed the teacher, and therefore the pupil, in order that the 
taxpayer might save a few dollars or that the strictly material 
interests might be dealt with more kindly. 

If there is one branch of the public service of any com- 
monwealth that should he absolutely free from the barter and 
trade of legislative log rolling in the division of appropria- 
tions, it is the public schools. We would respectfully call the 
attention of citizens and legislators to the settled policy of the 



Federal Government that each year devotes millions of dollars 
to education. The only legislative discussion of the matter, 
the only question raised being whether the amount is sufficient. 
The Federal Government, instead of reducing its expenditures 
for education and searching for ways and means to place a 
heavier burden on the teachers who direct the youth of the 
Tle])ublic in the search for knowledge, is each year devoting a 
larger share of its income to provide better paid teachers, more 
adequate equipment, and therefore broader opportunities for 
the pupils. 

The Commission is unanimous in its conviction that the 
specific tax on real and personal property is the best method 
by which the needs of the public schools in the Territory of 
Hawaii can be met. 

ONE PEPt CENT TAX. 

Tn pursuing its investigations and in the developing of pub- 
lic (t})ini()n on the matter, the commission has encountered 
a strong sentiment among the representatives of large corpor- 
ate interests against any tampering with the one per cent tax 
on real property and personal property. It therefore pre- 
sents in its report a scheme for raising funds that is more com- 
plicated than the commission would prefer but may be better 
suited to the sentiment of property interests as existing at the 
present moment. It is a compromise. 

The Commission is not delegated with authority to revise 
the taxation system of the Territory, much as such a revision 
could be made to work out to the general benefit of the public 
schools. 

In the Territory there is a very powerful element both 
openly and covertly declaring that too much education is being 
given the children of lowly birth. 

THE COMMISSION'S PROPOSAL. 

The plan the Commission offers as presenting the best adjust- 
ments in its estimation of the demands of the pul)lic schools 
may be briefly outlined as follows: 



That for every biennial period the Department of Pnblic 
Instrnction shall prepare a budget of esiimaics setting forth 
the needs of the Pnblic Schools for the ensuing years. 

This budget shall be prepared under two divisions, namely, 
the GENERAL FUND and the SPECIAL FUND. 

The GENERAL FUND shall include the salaries of teach- 
ers and supervisors, salary of the Superintendent, salaries of 
the office force and the general incidental expense, supplies 
incidental to instruction in the various sul)jects of the course of 
study, the expense of mannal and indnsti-ial training, medical 
inspection, libraries and books. 

The SPECIAL FUND shall include snpplies for mainten- 
ance and upkeep of school houses, shops, cottages and outbuild- 
ings and construction of new buildings and care of grounds, 
furnitnre, fixtures and janitor service, and all supplies not in- 
cluded under the General Fund. 

This ])udget when completed l)y the Department of Pul)lic In- 
struction shall 1)0 submitted to a (^ominlitee of Estimates connisi- 
ing of six members, four of whom shall be the Chairmen of the 
Boards of Supervisors of the (^ounties of the Territory, one 
the Secretary of the Territory and the sixth, the Superintend- 
ent of Pnblic Instruction, ex-officio. The Committee shall serve 
without pay, except mileage to cover expenses. 

The duty of the Committee of Estimates sliall be to go over 
the Special Finul of the Budget and make such revisions as may 
be deemed ])ro])er. This Committee of Estimates shall not have 
auth(U-ity to change any part of the General Fund. School ac- 
connnodation shall be estimated on the basis of not more than 
forty ])n])ils per teacher for centers of population. Provision 
must l>(' made for children in onter districts by new school 
houses or suitable transportation to a central school. 

The SCHOOL BUDGET liaving been passed npon by the 
C^")mmittee of Estimates shall then b(> presented thirty days be- 
fore the o])ening of the Legislature to the Governor, who shall 
submit the same t(^ the Legislature within ten days aftei- it 
opens in regular session, with his recommendalions. Slioidd 



the Committee of Estimates fail to act within the time specified, 
the estimates of the Department of Public Instruction shall be 
submitted to the Legislature bv the Governor direct. 



PEOVIDING THE FUNDS. 

The FTTXDS to meet the appropriations called for in the 
SCHOOL BUDGET shall be derived from the f<dlowing 
sources : 

The SCHOOL TAX of two dollars paid by every male in- 
habitant between the ages of twenty and sixty years; 

FIFTY PER CENT OF THE INCOME FPOM PUB- 
LIC LANDS sales, leases and water licenses ; 

A SPECIFIC TAX ON THE REAL PROPERTY AND 
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF THE TERRITORY repre- 
sented by a hn'v of as uiany mills on the dollar of real prop- 
erty and personal ])roperty as may be necessary to meet the 
difference between the sum called for under the General Fund 
of the School Budget and the total of the School Personal Tax, 
the Public Lands income and any other permanent sources of 
income devoted to public schools. For instance, if the General 
Fund of the School Budget called for $800,000,— $100,000 
might be secured from the personal tax, $250,000 from the 
fifty per cent of the income on public lands, leaving $450,000 
to be raised by a specific tax of three mills on the dollar, esti- 
mating the assessed value of the real and personal property 
at $150,000,000. 

PERMANENT FUND. 

By reference to other sources of permanent income the Com- 
mission has in mind the creation of a permanent school fund 
by donations of land or other income bearing property the 
proceeds of which shall be used for the support of the public 
schools. 



CONTINUING APPROrRIATION. 

The amount necessary for salaries of teachers, supervisors 
and inspectors shall be appropriated nnder an act authorizing a 
continuing appropriation. It nuikes available each biennial 
})eriod without further specific act of the Legislature the funds 
required to meet an approved schedule of expense. This is per- 
missible under the Organic Act as amended. This o])viates 
the necessity of the Legislature taking uji the details of the 
teachers' pay rolls at each session. 

This will also avoid the possible difficulty of the County 
constructing buildings and the Territory not having funds to 
pay the salaries of needed teachers. When the revenues of the 
Territory are sufficient the County will have adequate funds 
for needed enlargement of buildings, and the Department of 
Public Instruction will be able to employ the teachers made 
necessary by increased accommodation. 

At the present time and under the laws proposed the (^ounty 
has the construction and maintenance of the school buildings 
while the Territory has the paying of teachers' salaries. In 
this arrangement there is the possibility of frequent disagree- 
ments between the Counties and the Territorial authorities. 
This condition is undesirable and does not contribute to the 
best educational interests of the Territory, but rather to a con- 
dition of strife that retards the progress of our schools. At 
present the school authorities are handicapped by the lack of 
funds and at the same time held responsible for the success- 
ful carrying on of the work. Under the plan suggested the 
Territory is safeguarded by an authorized salary schedule and 
the construction of buildings by the County ; while on the 
other hand the (Jommissioners of Public Instruction are guar- 
autee-d the necessary funds to meet the legitimate educational 
needs of the country and the admiuistrati(m can spend their 
energies on planning the Avork of the schools rather than, as 
now, spending valuable time on salary adjustments that with 
adequate funds would be automatically attended to by the 
salary schedule. 



THE REASONS WHY. 

The aim of the Commission in setting aside the specific 
sources of income as in the SCHOOL TAX is to secure a 
definite revenue from the large number of non-property own- 
ing males who have none of the responsil)ilities of citizenship, 
but whose children gain the benefits of thi- public schools. 

In taking a portion of the revenue from PUBLIC 
LANDS, we devote the income from the Public Domain to the 
])urposes which the American people and, in earlier days, the 
people of Hawaii believed to be its proper use. From 1850 
and to the year 1894, Hawaii gave the funds derived from one- 
twentieth of its public lands to ])ublic school purposes. In the 
United States, from the time of the admission of Ohio as a 
State one-thirty-sixth of all the lands of the State was devoted 
to the support of public schools. This continued until the ad- 
mission of California and in the case of California and each 
State subsequently admitted, one-eighteenth part of the whole 
area of each State was set apart for educational purposes. The 
unearned increment of our Piihlic Lands belongs to the chil- 
dren of the soil. What J)etter heritage can we, their trustees, 
give them than the facilities for a lihernl education? 

In the VARIABLE TAX OX REAL PROPERTY AND 
PERSONAL PROPERTY we aim to establish within the 
Territory of Llawaii the unassailable and righteous principle 
that the Public Schools should Ix? provided for first. If 
other sources of revenue do not produce the necessary funds, 
the tax shall be levied in such amount each year as will pro- 
vide liberally and adequately for public education. 

Should the people of the Territory be unwilling to adopt 
this principle of taxation in connection with their schools, they 
indicate that they lack respect for the fundamental principle 
that high character of citizenship and government can only be 
maintained through efficient public education. 

According to the scheme worked out bv the commission 
the SCHOOL BUDGET originates in the Department of Pub- 
lic Instruction where we find the detailed information and ex- 
pert knowledge of educational development in the Territory. 



10 

It then goes to the ("0^r:\rTTTEE OF ESTIMATES made 
lip of meinhers from the various ( 'onntics who from a])])i-oxi- 
mate'ly two years of serviee in ])nh]ic otfice should be closely in 
tonch with what the people of eaeli County desire and thus best 
able, with the exception of the items of the General Fund, to 
make a practical revision — should it lie deemed that the educa- 
tional ex])erts are leading on more rapidly than the people can 
follow. 

Tho Governor reviews the SCTIOOL BUDGET and it then 
goes finally to the representatives of the people in the Legis- 
lature, a competent and complete statement of what should be 
furnished by the taxpayers of the Territory in order that the 
children of Hawaii may have that which is the birthright of 
every child born in America as well as the first essential of 
future good citizenship, — a good common school education. 

The items of the GENEKAL FUND are not included among 
those to be r(>vise(l by the (T)]\l^rTTl^EE OF ESTBIATES 
because the salaries of the teachers, sn])ervisors and ins])(M;'t<n-s 
should be determined by a permanent schedule, and the details 
of school sup]dies and gra<lual expansion of industrial tr.aining 
and domestic science and art, agricultural and mechanic arts and 
medical inspection are better left to the Department of Public 
Instruction. A commonwealth that will not follow the recom- 
mendations of its school managers in matters of technical de- 
tail is setting its children a bad example. 

Manual training in its various branches is placed under the 
GENERAL FUND because work of this character should be 
carried on under a system that is identical througlioiit the 
Territory. 

Under the SPECIAL FUND we have those items that might 
be termed particularly local and therefore of special moment 
to the ofiicers of the Counties. Before children can be taught 
they must.be properly housed and the buildings properly equip- 
ped. On this matter the people and officers of the individual 
counties should have authority to determine the character and 
cost of this work. In the event of a decision to erect perma- 
nent buildings of brick or stone, the expense should be dis- 
tributed l)y a loan approiu-iation. 



11 

APPORTIONMENT. 

The romiiiission rccommonds that the apjiropriation for 
salaries be made in a hinip sum to cover the schedule provided 
under the rules and regulations of the Department of Public 
Instruction. 

It also recommends that the items nnder the head of 
School Supplies be appropriated as a lump sum under a sched- 
ule prepared by the ])epartuient of Public Insti'uction that 
shall consider: (a) Grade of School, as Primary, Grauimar 
or High School; (b) Number of teachers; (c) Enrollment of 
School; (d) Schools having regular industrial instructors. 

This Conrmission recommends that the approjn'iation for 
special schools as Lahainaluna, Boys' Industrial, Girls' In- 
dustrial, be placed under the General Eund of the Budget. 

TERRITORY AND COUNTY. 

One of the ju'oldems facing the people of tlu^ Territory at 
the present time is the adjustment of the res})onsibilities of the 
Territory and the (bounties. 

Of late years there has been a steady drift toward assump- 
tion of greater authority over the schools by the C^ounties, The 
causes for this are too numerous and complex to cover in a 
report of this character, but the Commission is satisfied that 
except for occasional lapses of executive capacity a large share 
of the complaint against the present system of school manage- 
ment is primarily due to the fact that for the last ten years, 
or since the public revenues were reduced through the loss of 
the custom house collections, the Department of Public In- 
struction has been without sufiicient funds to carry on its work. 
The Department has been as frequently criticised for short- 
comings due to legislative neglect as it has been for adminis- 
trative incompetence. 

LOCAL CONTROL— SCTIOOL AGENT. 

In adjusting the demand for greater local control without 
doing injury to the general system of education, the Commis- 
sion has concluded that the greatest sources of friction and 



12 

dissatisfaction may be eliminated by giving the school agent 
of each district more authority. A great many people fail to 
realize that education in Hawaii has passed through the stage 
of absolute local control. The form of centralization which 
was brought about under the law of 1894 and which is now 
largely in vogue, may be termed Excessive centralization. In 
ridding the Territory of the errors of this system great care 
should be taken that the pendulum does not swing to the op- 
posite extreme. Reference to the brief outline of education in 
Hawaii submitted with this report will show that in the early 
days the public schools were under a localized system. 

The Chiefs provided schools in their various districts in 
much the same manner as the township schools in countries of 
more advanced civilization. The next step was the levy of a 
local school tax, raised and used in the district. The school 
agent came into existence in 1841 and remains at the present 
time, but he is practically shorn of all authority. Under the 
scheme in vogiie in the early days the local funds raised in 
each school district were expended in that district, but the 
school agent had to write to the central authority for per- 
mission to make the smallest expenditure. This was not satis- 
factory because the school agent had no power to act on his 
own initiative. Later the administrative scheme moved toward 
centralization and the apportionment of funds without giving 
the school agent any greater authority for independent action. 
In 1894 all school funds were centralized in the general realiza- 
tions of the Territory and the school agent became more of a 
figurehead than ever. He expended the funds that were par- 
celled out to him in the manner directed by the central author- 
ity. 

This Commission does not urge a return to the old condi- 
tion, but recommends the development of local control through 
the school agent according to the best recog-nized systems de- 
veloped in America. 

This Commission proposes that the school funds shall be 
distributed among the districts according to the schedule pre- 
pared under approved methods, the appropriation to be ap- 
portioned to each school district nud the school agent given the 
authority to use the funds for bis district as the needs of the 



13 

district become manifest, subject of course to proper account- 
ing and auditing. This will give a large measure of local con- 
'trol without taking away the necessary supervision from the 
Central Authority of the Territory as represented by the De- 
partment of Public Instruction. 

Following is the summary of the scheme proposed by the 
Commission : 

SCHOOL BUDGET 

Prepared by the Department of Public Instruction under tlie follow- 
ing heads: 

GENERAL FUND 

Salary of Superintendent. 

Salary of Office Force and General Expense. 

Salaries of Teachers, Supervisors, Inspectors and Medical 

Inspectors. 
Supplies. 

Libraries and Books. 
Industrial and Manual Training. 

SPECIAL FUND 

New buildings (school houses, shops, cottages and outbuild- 
ings). 
Repairs and maintenance of buildings and grounds and new 

grounds. 
Janitor Service. 
Furniture and fixtures. 
The items under the GENERAL FUND should be grouped as fol- 
lows: 

a. Adiiiinistratiou. 

Salaries of Superintendent, Office Force and general ex- 
pense. 

b. lustruotiou and supervisiou. 

Salaries of Teachers, Supervisors and Inspectors and 
Medical Inspectors. 

c. School supplies. 

Equipment and material for Industrial and Manual Train- 
ing. 
Libraries, desk books and general supplies. 
It is recommended that the Department purchase its supplies of 
text books from local firms. The cost of books for primary grades 
should be at list price, and those for Grammar and High School Grades 
should not exceed ten per cent above list price. 

A. Adiiiiuistratioii. 

The items under the head of office force and general expense should 
be appropriated as a lump sum. 



14 

B. Instruction and Supervision. 

The items under the head of instruction and supervision should be 
appropriated as a lump sum. This amount should be distributed ac-. 
cording to salary schedule prepared by the Department of Public In- 
struction. 

The amount necessary for salaries under this head, based on salary 
schedule should be appropriated under an Act making the amount 
necessary under salary schedules available from year to year without 
further specific Act of the Legislature. 

Any cutting that may be necessary should be on the physical side 
of the school work, e. g., supplies, repairs, etc. 

C. Scliool supplies. 

The items under the head of school supplies should be appropri- 
ated as a lump sum and distributed among the schools according to 
a schedule prepared by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
This schedule should consider:^ (a) Kind of schools as. Primary, 
Grammar and High School, (b) Number of teachers, (c) Enrollment 
of school, (d) Schools having regular industrial instructors. The 
apportionment shall be made annually for the fiscal year, .July 1st to 
June 30th. Each school or district shall be credited with the amount 
of the apportionment and each school agent and supervising prin- 
cipal held responsible for the proper distribution of the funds. Sup- 
plies are purchased through the Department. Each principal should 
be supplied with a copy of authorized price list. All requests for sup- 
plies must be in accordance with term outline and be approved by 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction or his authorized agent. 

The items under the SPECIAL FUND: 

The items under the SPECIAL FUND are required expenditures by 
the Counties under the authority of the Legislature and have to do 
with the strictly local needs and demands. The expense of new wood- 
en buildings should be provided for out of the current revenues of 
the Counties. The expense of new buildings of a permanent char- 
acter in centers of population should be provided for under a loan fund 
or bond issue. (Supreme Court decision, N. Y., 1898). 

C0Jtt3IITTEE OF ESTIMATES. 

How constituted. There shall be a Committee of Estimates for the 
Territory of Hawaii consisting of six members, four of whom shall be 
the chairmen of the Boards of Supervisors of the Four Counties, one 
the Secretary of the Territory and the sixth the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, ex-offlcio. The Secretary of the Territory shall be 
the chairman of the Committee of Estimates, and in case of his ab- 
sence, any member of the Committee may be chosen to preside over 
the meetings of the Committee. All members of said Committee shall 
serve without pay except that mileage expenses may be allowed for 
outside members. 

Duties. The Committee shall examine the Budget prepared by the 
Department of Public Instruction. They may approve the Budget or 
may with the exception of the items under the head of the General 
Fund reduce the estimate. Ttiey cannot add to the budget. The 
Committee must submit the approved budget to the Governor thirty 



15 

days before the opening of the Legislature. The Governor submits it 
within ten days after the opening of the Legislature, with his apr 
proval or with his recommendations. School accommodations shall be 
estimated on the basis of forty ])upils per teacher for centers of pop- 
ulation. Provision must be made for children of school age in outer 
districts either by the construction of suitable school buildings or by 
providing transportation to most conveniently located school. 

REVENFE. 

School Tax. An annual tax of two dollars for the support of public 
schools shall be paid by every male inhabitant of the Territory be- 
tween the ages of twenty and sixty years, unless exempted by law. 
This tax shall be collected and used exclusively for the public schools. 

Land Keveiiue. Fifty per cent of the net proceeds of the public 
lands whether from sale or licenses should be set aside for the use of 
public schools. 

School Tax on Real Property and Personal Property. There shall 
be assessed on all real property and all the personal property within 
the Territory an annual tax of as many mills on the dollar as shall 
be necessary to meet the difference between the amount of the Gen 
eral Fund of the Budget and the estimated income from the poll 
school tax, the proceeds from the permanent fund, and fifty per 
cent of the net proceeds of public lands whether from sale, lease, or 
licenses (except such as mav be oe*". apart for the construction ol 
roads, survey, and purchases of land for public purposes.) 

PERMANENT TERRITORIAL SCHOOL FUND. 

Purpose. For the purpose of affording the advantages of a free 
education to the children of the Territory, the Territory shall establisli 
a Permanent School Fund, the interest of which shall be used for the 
public schools. 

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR PERMANENT FUND. 

1. Money from donors 

2. All fines for violations of school laws. 

3. Escheated property. 

4. Property forfeited to the State. 

5. All land sold and bought in for taxes. 

FEDEKAL APPROPEIATION. 

Early in the sessions of tlie Coniinission a stiggestion was 
made that the Territory appeal to Congress for the appropria- 
tion of one-third of the revenues of the custom house of the 
customs district of Hawaii to the nses of the Public Schools 
of the_ Territory. This involved such far-reaching possibilities 
in connection with exceptional legislation for this Territory 
that active promotion of -this stibject was dropped. There are 
at present, however, before Congress, two bills which have for 



16 ♦ 

their purpose the appropriation of Federal Funds to aid the 
public schools of the States and Territories. There is no ques- 
tion but that Hawaii should under any circumstances cordially 
and actively campaign for the passage of such measure if it be 
deemed inadvisable to appeal to Congress for a Special Appro- 
priation. Theoretically one of the most fitting pieces of legis- 
lation that could be accomplished would be an appropriation by 
the Federal Government of a sum sufficient to establish through- 
out this Territorv, either schools in manual training, affricul- 
ture and domestic science and art, or the inauguration in the 
Territory of vocation schools having for their purpose the edu- 
cation of every child in the Territory in agriculture and house 
work as well as in the three "R's." 

This Commission recommends that work be undertaken for 
a Federal appropriation through the Davis Act or any other 
similar measure to be used to establish and support industrial 
schools in each island that will offer lines of work in harmony 
with our peculiar conditions. Such a Federal a])propriation 
would be derived from funds that come indirectly from the 
aliens whose education, many of our fellow citizens feel and 
claim, is too heavy a burden for the citizen to carry. It would 
also support a system of education that is needed, and one 
which will in a comparatively short time show the error of 
the critic who claims that too much education ruins the child 
for work. If children could be taught the dignity of manual 
labor, and learn that by the application of intelligence they can 
increase the returns obtained from the work of their hands, 
they would certainly turn to the soil where they are needed as 
against the walks of life in cities and towns that are over- 
crowded. 

The people of this Territory have the power in their hands. 
If the hoys and girls are not raised aright they will in the near 
future he a menace to the Territory. On the training given 
them rests the economic future of this Territory. Our children 
and our worJc are interdependent, and on the training of the 
one rests the progress of the other. 

The Act embodying the views of the Commission, and which 
will in its estimate accomplish the pur])ose of the resolution 
under which the Commission was appointed, is as follows: 



17 

a:^ act 

To Provide for the MAiisfTENAisrcE of the Pubeic Schools. 

Be It Enacted by the Legislature of the Territory of Hawaii: 

Section 1. The Department of Public Instruction is here- 
by authorized, empowered and directed to prepare a salary 
schedule to cover the compensation to be paid all teachers, su- 
pervisors and principals. Such schedule shall be based upon 
a classification of schools, classification of teachers' certificates 
and length of ser\dce, provided, however, that the schedule as 
to salaries of principals and supervisors shall be based also 
upon the number of teachers under their direction. Such 
schedule when approved by the Governor and published at least 
three times in some newspaper of general circulation, printed 
and published in Honolulu, shall have the force and effect of 
law. Hereafter all salaries of teachers, supervisors and prin- 
cipals shall be paid according to such schedule. The total num- 
ber of teachers, including supervisors and principals who may 
be continuously employed by the Department in any one year 
shall not exceed one for every twenty-five (25) pupils enrolled 
in the public schools during the preceding year. Such schedule 
may from time to time with like approval and publication be 
altered, amended or revised. 

FOR SCHOOL BUDGET. 

Section 2'. Prior to December 15, 1912, and every second 
year thereafter, the Dej)artment of Public Instruction shall 
prepare a budget to be known as the School Budget showing 
the estimated expenses, other than salaries of teachers, su- 
pervisors and principals, of the Public Schools and of such 
Board for the next ensuing biennial period. Such budget shall 
be in the following form: 

GENERAL FUND. 

Salary of Superintendent. 

Salaries of Office Force. 

General Expenses. 

Supplies. 

Libraries and Books. 

Industrial and Manual Training. 



18 



SPECIAL FUND. 



'New buildings (school houses, cottages and outbuildings). 

Repairs and maintenance of buildings and grounds and new 
grounds. 

Janitor service. 

Furniture and fixtures. 

Section 3. l^ot later than December 15, 1912, and every 
second year thereafter, such budget shall be submitted by the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction to a Committee of Esti- 
mates consisting of the Secretary of the Territory, who shall 
be chairman, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the 
Mayor of the City and County of Honolulu and the Chair- 
man of the Boards of Supervisors of the several counties. 
Such Committee shall meet in Honolulu at the call of the 
chairman and shall consider such budget. It may, in its dis- 
cretion, revise or change any item appearing under the gen- 
eral heading ''Special Fund," but it shall not change any item 
appearing under the heading "General Fund." The members 
of such Committee shall serve without pay, but shall be en- 
titled to their actual traveling expenses, to be paid out of the 
funds provided for the general expenses of the Department. 
I^ot later than January 15, 1913, and every second year there- 
after, such budget, as revised by the Committee of Estimates, 
shall be submitted to the Governor of the Territory, who shall 
submit the same without change, but with his own recom- 
mendations, to the Legislature within ten days after the open- 
ing of its next regular session. In case the Committee of Es- 
timates fails to act upon the school budget within the time 
above specified, the Superintendent of Public Instruction shall 
submit the budget as prepared by the Department to the Gov- 
ernor as aforesaid, and he shall, as aforesaid, submit the same 
to the Legislature. Such budget when acted upon by the Leg- 
islature shall determine the amounts which may be expended 
for such purposes during the succeeding biennial period. 

FIRST CHARGE ON RP^VENUES. 

Section 4. All revenues derived from time to time from the 
collection of the school tax levied under the provisions of Sec- 
tion 1200 of the Revised Laws of Hawaii shall be deemed to 
be and are hereby appropriated for the payment of the salaries 



19 

of teachers, supervisors and principals as determined by the 
salary schedule, and for the support and maintenance of the 
public schools for the objects and in the manner designated in 
the school budget approved by the Legislature, which are here- 
by made the first charge upon such revenues. 

Section 5. Out of the revenues derived from time to time 
from the taxes on real property and personal property there 
shall be deemed to be and is hereby appropriated, such an 
■amount as shall be necessary to provide sufficient additional 
funds to meet the requirements of the aggregate of the salaries 
of teachers, supervisors and principals as fixed by said schedule 
and of said school budget, which are hereby made the first 
charge upon such revenues. In order to determine the amounts 
to be added under this section, the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction shall notify the Treasurer in writing not later than 
September 1, in each year of the total number of teachers, su- 
pervisors and principals engaged for the ensuing year and the 
aggregate of the salaries to be paid them under the salary 
schedule. 

Section 6. Pending the preparation of the school budget 
as in this Act required and for the next ensuing biennial period, 
the school budget shall for all purposes be the following: 
(Herein insert items). 

Section 7. All other laws and parts of laws are hereby 
amended or repealed in so far as necessary to conform here- 
with. 

Section 8. This Act shall take effect on July 1, 1911. 

WOKK OF COMMISSION. 

The foregoing covers in general outline the conclusions of 
the Commission and its recommendations. 

The Commission has held very many meetings both of formal 
and informal nature and has used every endeavor to secure the 
views of as many citizens as possible on each island. The first 
meeting was held on the 29th day of June, 1909, in the office of 
Mr. W. A. Bowen in the Stangenwald Building, and organized 
with Mr. Wallace P. Earring-ton as Chairman, Mr. Edgar 
Wood as Statistical Secretary, and Mr. W. A. Bowen as Re- 
cording .and Corresponding Secretary. 



20 

The original plan for study was outlined under five heads : 

1. Work for a suitable Federal appropriation; 

2. A jDublicity campaign for the information of the people ; 

3. An investigation of means and methods of raising and 
apportioning elsewhere ; 

4. An investigation of conditions existing in the Territory 
of Hawaii ; and 

5. Recommendations for the solution of the educational 
problems of Hawaii by the adaptation of approved methods in 
vogue on the Mainland to conditions as they exist in this Ter- 
ritory. 

The Federal appropriation matter gave rise to possibilities of 
so many complications that the Commission dropped the active 
promotion of it for the time being. 

In the publicity campaign the Commission has used the 
press of Honolulu freely and found the editors and pub- 
lishers of our papers very willing to help in any way. The 
Chairman of the Commission has published a strong series 
of brief statements under the caption of "Hawaii's School 
Facts," which are made a part of this report. A number of 
carefully-prepared articles have been published in different 
newspapers with very emphatic editorial notes appended. The 
Commission also printed a comprehensive statement in twelve 
pages and mailed it to about one thousand repre- 
sentative men and women throughout the islands, 'asking not 
only their attention but also their suggestions as to the best 
solution of the problems involved. 

In the study of methods employed elsewhere and in our 
own Territory, we have drawn upon the reports and publica- 
tions of the Department at Washington, the various State de- 
partments, sundry school commission reports, and publications 
by the leading educational authorities throughout the country. 

In connection with the investigation of the conditions in 
Hawaii, the Commission has studied the Hawaiian reports 
both educational and financial. 

The former Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mr. W. 
H. Babbitt, and the present Superintendent, Mr. W. T. Pope, 
have been consulted freely and they have given of their time 



21 

and attention without stint and have made many valuable sug- 
gestions which have materially assisted the Commission in its 
investigations. 

Very valuable suggestions have been submitted by citizens 
of the Territory and these have been gladly welcomed and care- 
fully considered. The members of the Commission have en- 
deavored to consider every phase of the subject again and again 
in their weekly meetings. They are under obligations to 
the Governor of the Territory of Hawaii, the Chief Justice 
of the Supreme Court, and other leading officials and prominent 
business men who have met the commission in conference and 
gave without reserve their views on the educational situation 
in the islands. The commission has been very materially as- 
sisted in its work by the Rev. C. IST. Pond, who volunteered his 
services and who did a great amount of detail investigation 
which brought matters before the commission in reference to 
the conduct of public school systems on the Mainland in a con- 
cise and. striking form. The Commission acknowledges the co- 
operation and assistance given by the University Club in the 
a])po]ntment of a committee to advise in regard to the legal 
phase of the report, and to assist in the drafting of an act em- 
bodying the recommendations of the report. Mr. Chas. R. 
Hemenway, the Chairman of the committee, consulted with 
the Commission and with the individual members giving valu- 
able assistance on the legal phase of the report, and drafted the 
Act herewith submitted. The Commission wishes to express 
.formally its recognition of the public spirited seiwices of Mr. 
Hemenway. The detailed minutes of the sessions of the Com- 
mission, together with the correspondence carried on and the 
suggestions gained from many different sources are submitted 
herewith as a part of this report. 

Respectfully submitted, 

WALLACE R. FARRINaTOIs^, 

Chairman. 

EDGAR WOOD, 

Statistical Sec'y. 

WM. A. BOWEN, 

Recording and Corresponding Sec'y. 



22 
HAWAII SCHOOL FACTS. 



No.L 

ENROLLMENT OF HAWAII'S SCHOOLS 10 YEARS. 

1898 10,965 

1900 11,501 

1902 13,760 

1904 14,813 

1906 16.651 

1908 19,474 

19,474 
10,965 

Increase 8,509 

Percentage increase 77.6 per cent. 



No. 11. 



AMOUNTS SPENT ON PUPLIC SCHOOLS EX- 
CLUSIVE OF NEW BUILDINGS FROM LOAN 
FUND 10 YEARS. 

Jail. 1, 1898, to Dec. 31, 1899 $569,188.53 

Jan. 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901 508,663.25 

July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903 780,409.92 

Julv 1, 1903, to June 30, 1904 409,048.84 

July 1, 1904, to June 30, 1905 336,358.59 

July 1, 1905, to June 30, 1906 361,458.99 

July 1, 1906, to June 30, 1907 349,933.14 

July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1908 467.232.85 

July 1, 1908, to June 30, 1909 : 446,832.60 



23 

No. III. 

COST OF INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS PER 
CAPITA, 10 YEARS. 

1899 $33.18 

1900 31.24 

1901 27.45 

1902 30.11 

1903 28.28 

1904 28.27 

1905 22.12 

1900 22.42 

1907 20.41 

1908 25.16 

1909 22.90 

Decreased cost of instruction clue to disproportionate in- 
crease of school attendance to appropriations. 



No. IV. 
TEACHERS SALARIES 1909. 

1 $ 10.00 38 $ 70.00 

13 25.00 34 75.00 

15 27.50 1 80.00 

40 30.00 20 83.33 

5 35.00 2 85.00 

17 40.00 1 90.00 

15 45.00 46 100.00 

32 50.00 14 125.00 

84 .55.00 7 150.00 

64 60.00 7 200.00 

32 05.00 2 225.00 

22% receiving' less than $50 per month. 

58% receiving less than $50 to $75 inclusive. 

73% receiving less than $75. 

83% receiving less than $100. 

94% receiving $100 or less. 

6% receiving over $100 per month. 



24 



No. Y. 

OVERCROWDED ROOMS IN REGULAR PUBLIC 
SCHOOL, JUNE, 1909. 

Rooms. 

Enrollment of over 45 but under 50 57 

Enrollment of 50 or over but under 55 38 

Enrollment of 55 or over but under 60 23 

Enrollment of 60 or over but under 70 24 

Enrollment of 70 or over 12 

Total 154 

154 out of 439 rooms, or 35%, overcrowded. 



No. VI. 
ADDITIONAL TEACHERS NEEDED. 



Moiliili 2 

Manoa 1 

Pohukaina 1 

Kauluwela 5 

Kaiulani 2 

Rojal 3 

Kahuku 1 

Waiahole 1 

Waimanalo 1 

Central Primarv 1 

Hiffh School . /. . 1 



Hanapepe 4 

Waimea 4 

Koolau 1 

Kapaa 1 

Lihue 2 

Kalalieo 2 

Koloa 1 

Makaweli 1 

Hilo LTnion 2 

Hakalau 2 



Honouliuli 2 

Waipabu 2 

Kalihiwaena 2 

Kaahumanu • • • • 

CJentral Grammar • • • • 

Aiea 

Kaneohe 

Waialua . • • 

AVahiawa . . • 

Boys' Industrial 

Haena 

Hanamaulu 



Honokaa 

Makapala 

Honomakau 

I'laumana 

01aa9Miles 

Kaapahu 

Pepeekeo 

Papaikou 2 

Hilo High 1 

Paia 2 

Spreckelsville 1 

Haou 1 

Keanae 1 



25 

Forty-tliree thousand and, two hundred dollars per year 
needed if above teachers have no higher than first-class 
jDrimary certificates and no allowance for length of service; 
otherwise larger amount needed. 

1^^0. VII. 

COMPARATIVE INCREASE PUPILS AND TEACH- 
ERS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 10 YEARS. 

PujDils. Teachers. 

1898 10,965 316 

1900 11,501 352 

1902 13,760 382 

1904 14,813 400 

1906 16,651 443 

1908 19,474 489 

Increase number pupils 77.6 pet. 

Increase number teachers 54.7 pet. 

Result : Overcrowding. 

Thirty-five per cent, rooms from receiving to eighth grade 
overcrowded. 



No. VIII. 



SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF MANUAL AND INDUS- 
TRIAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

I. Collective (for the school). 

1. Manual — 

a. Carpentry work, 

b. Painting, whitewashing, etc. 

c. Construction of stone walls, fences, ditch 

making, walk building, etc. 

2. Printing. 

3. Cooking. 

4. Agriculture — 

a. Clearing land. 

b. Keeping grounds in order. 

c. School garden. 

d. Tree planting. 



26 



II. Individual (for the pupil). 

1. Manual — 

■a. Carpentry work. 

b. Knife work. 

c. Polishing nuts, etc. 

2. Sewing. 

3. Lace work. 

4. Weaving: Lauhala and bamboo. 

5. Individual gardens. 



No. IX. 



SCHOOLS HAVING DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
DEPAKTMENTS. 

Holualoa. Kaahunianu. 

Honokohau Kaiulani. 

Olaa 12 Miles. Waialua. 

Lahaina. Ilauula. 

Kaluaalia. Normal. 

Pohukaina. Royal. 

Aims of this department: 

Refinement and culture in home making. 

Knowledge of simple cookery. 

Relative value of the staple articles of food. 

It is needed in every school, but the jjublic schools must 
have proper financial support to allow expansion of practical 
education. 



No. X. 

MANUAL WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1908-1909. 

Seven thousand five hundred and seventy-five pupils en- 
gaged in manual work other than sewing and agriculaure. 
Twenty-one schools have equijunent for carpentry work. 



27 

Some of the things made : 

Chairs and stools. Pointers. 

Tables. Eraser boxes. 

Desks. Blackboard frames. 

Sewing cabinets. Water troughs and supports. 

Aquariums, Seed and cutting boxes. 

Yard and meter sticks. Canes. 

Insect cases and cages. Foot rules and cubes. 

Work benches. Picture frames and trays. 

Tool chests. General repairing, etc. 



No. XI. 
PRINTING DEPARTMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Seven schools have outfits and are doing regular printing: 

Honomu. . Kaahumanu. 

Pajniikou. Normal. 

Lahainaluna. Kaiulani. 

Wailuku. 
Partial output of school press : 

Two thousand seven hundred copies Hawaii's Young Peo- 
ple each month. 
Index to Hawaii's Young People. 
Course of Study. 
Domestic Science Manual. 
Suplemental Reports of Department. 
Hilo High School ]u-ospcctus. 
County Government Literature. 
Programs of Exercises. 
Stories and Songs. 
Lesson outlines, schedules, etc. 



No. XII. 

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Clearing and preparing land. Flower gardening. 
Keeping groui\ds in order. Tree planting. 

Vegetable gardening. 



28 



ISTine thousand three hundred and nine pupils engaged in 
gardening. Practically all children doing some yard work. 
More than 125 schools actively engaged. 
Two schools planting sugar cane on commercial basis. 

PLANTS, 



Taro. 

Potatoes. 

Tomatoes. 

Pineapple. 

Cabbage. 

Carrots. 

Parsley. 

Egg plant. 

Lettuce. 



Corn. 

Onions. 

String beans. 

Beets. 

Cucumbers. 

Melons. 

Turnips. 

Sisal. 

Various flowers. 



TREES. 



Silver Oak. 
Monkeypod. 
Bougainvillia. 
Algeroba. 



Pride of 

Pepper. 

Orange. 

Avacado 

Banana. 



India. 



Pear. 



Ponciana. 

Palms. 

IrouAvood 

Eucalyptus. 

Camphor. 

Lemon. 

Mango. 

Papaia 

Lime. 



No. XIII. 



SEWIIsTG llsT PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Eight thousand three hundred and fourteen pupils in sew- 
ing classes last school year. 

Plain sewing taught to boys and girls in primary grades, 
cutting, fitting and more complicated forms of sewing taught 
in grammar grades. 

Pupils taught stitching)^ seaming, over-casting, hemstitch- 
ing, gathering, sowing on ruffles, buttonhole stitching, darn- 
ing, patching, special stitching, etc. 

Articles made: 



29 



Towels. Handkerchiefs. 

Napkins. Skirts. 

Chalk bags. Dresses. 

Iron holders. Table covers. 
Bags for pencils and rulers. Pillow slips. 

Aprons. Quilts. 

Caps. Drawn work. 

Underclothes. Fancy work. 



No. XIV. 
LACE AND WEAVING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Twenty-one schools give instruction in lace making. 

Five hundred and seventeen pupils doing lauhala, bamboo 
and grass weaving. 

Last year the following were enrolled in the lace classes m 
Honolulu : 

Hawaiian 67 

Part Hawaiian 51 

Chinese 24 

Portuguese 24 

, Japanese 16 

American 12 

German 2 

During the last two years $317 worth of lace has been sold 
by Honolulu pupils alone. 



No. XV. 

THE PKOBLEMS OF PACE IN TEACHING. 

It is a matter of observation that there are in the Territory 
of Hawaii a very gratifying number of exceptionally efficient 
teachers. Exceptional efficiency may be evinced in exceptionally 
favorable environment, or, as not infrequently has happened, 



30 

it may be discovered or developed by exceptionally untoward 
circumstances. Complicated international relations have de- 
veloped the great diplomatist, a crisis in the affairs of a people 
has produced the great statesman, hard times and a fight for 
existence have corapelledi an industry into reorganizations and 
new methods that have made for it a great future. So it may 
conceivably be in the matter of teaching. 

If, failing to find an explanation of efficiency elsewhere, one 
should set out to look for difficulties sufficient to put the teach- 
ers on their mettle, one need not look in vain. The school 
proposition of Hawaii has been a growing population — a very 
rapidly growing one. 

School attendance is four times as great now as it was in 
1876. This is an increase of 300 per cent, in thirty-three 
years. 

The number of available teachers has in all that time and 
earlier been far below the need. Salaries of teachers have been 
always inadequate and -at times distressingly low. 

Uncertificated teachers of deficient qualifications have been 
employed in large numbers. 

Overcrowding of buildings has been perennial. 

Appropriation of money have been estimated on the basis 
of past requirements rather than of the growing present or the 
greater future. 

Per capita cost of education has been kept below that of other 
progressive communities — below AVERAGE cost in the United 
States — notwithstanding the fact that in Hawaii the cost of ed- 
ucating a public school pupil is distributed among ten of popu- 
lation as against a ratio of •&. little less than one to five in the 
United States as a whole. 

Stated in other words, though the men of Hawaii have had 
less than half the burden of public education than men else- 
where are bearing, yet they have not been willing to bear even 
this half burden either capably or with entire cheerfulness. 

Inspection of our schools has been scant and intermittent. 

Supervision in any general sense has not been obtained. 

Principals of schools have been held, down to an exacting 
routine of grade work. 

Medical inspection of schools has been inadequate and in- 
frequent and at times pretty nearly given up. 



31 

Public school pupils have for the most part been children of 
very poor and sometimes of improvident parents. Home in- 
terest in the bringing up of children is deficient, nutrition is 
defective, and child labor is in many cases excessive. The 
poverty of the home and the parsimony of the State have kept 
equipment of school children far below that required for the 
best results. — School Agent Cox iu Address to Teachers' Asso- 
ciation. 



:n^o. XVI. 

SCHOOLS WHICH HAVE ADOPTED THE SCHOOL 
COUNTY OE CITY PLAK 

Hamakuapoko. Kaahumanu. 

Kealahou. !N^ormal. 

Waihee. Waimea. 

Hanapepe. Kaiulani. 

Lahainaluna. Papaikoii. 

Wailuku. Royal. 

A PURPOSE. 

The purpose of the school county or city is to give the pupils 
some knowledge of the working of the government under which 
they live and in which they are soon to take an active part; 
to beget in them the power of self-control which means the pow- 
er to be quiet, to be orderly, to be neat, to be busy, to be helpful 
and to be saving. Exemplification of all of these qualities is 
sought in the course of the school day by the performance of 
duties assigned to each pupil in keeping the school premises 
clean, in maintaining quiet and order in the rooms, halls and 
on the grounds, m exercising kindness and patience in dealings 
the one with the other, and in caring for the property of the 
school. The great lesson sought to be inculcated in all of this 
is that of individual personal responsibility for the community 
good ; each one is made to feel that upon his individual acts 
rests the highest weKare^ of the community ; that habits are 
formed by doing things over and over again ; and that the time 



32 

to form good habits is while one is young and in school ; that 
the character is the sum and substance of habits, and that the 
future of the boy or girl in the community of real life will de- 
pend upon the kind of habits that boy or girl acquires. The 
educative value of the school city comes by way of talks made 
by the teachers and invited speakers upon various subjects re- 
lating to duties of citizens in the community. In these talks 
all of the pupils of voting age profit, but those engaged in the 
actual 'administration of the affairs of the school county or city 
get valuable experience in written and oral expression by way 
of clerical duties in keeping records, making reports of parlia- 
mentary usage and more or less practice in discussing questions 
before the Board of Supervisors. The disciplinary value of 
the school city is derived from the way the pupils submit them- 
selves to the authority of those in office ; in the manner in which 
they endeavor to secure personal responsibility for the place, 
order and cleanliness of the school premises and in the zeal 
they evince in caring for the school property. 

B SOME RESULTS. 

The Principal of the Kaiulani School, Honolulu, says : ''I 
particularly like the training of the child in the duties of cit- 
izenship that in the course of time devolve upon him." The 
Principal of the Hanapepe School, Hanapepe, Kauai, writes: 
"It certainly forms a good training for future civic duties and 
citizenship." The head of the Wailuku High School, Wailuku, 
Maui, says : "The influence of this system has been really re^- 
markable." The Principal of the Papaikou School, Papaikou, 
Hawaii, writes: "The system gives an opportunity for broad 
teaching in social and political ethics. I find it worth while." 
The Principal of the Kealahou School, Waiakoa, Maui, says: 
"He learns the value of system and practices the virtues as well 
as the duties of citizenship." The head of Lahainaluna School, 
Lahaina, writes: "One of the most pleasant results of the 
school county is the fact that to a marked degree it has de- 
veloped in the students thei feeling of responsibility. With us 
it has practically solved the question of discipline." The Prin- 
cipal of the Kaahumanu School, Honolulu, says: "The dis- 
cipline of the Kaahumanu School has improved. The boys are 
more gentlemanly and the girls more ladylike." The Principal 



33 

of the Royal School, Honolulu, says: ^'The educative and 
disciplinary values of the system are so great, it has become 
necessary to the success of the school." 

No. XVII. 

NEW BUILDINGS NEEDED FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES 
AT BEGINNING OF PRESENT BIENNIAL 
PERIOD. 

Oahu — 

Kahuku — 2 room school building, teacher's cottage. 

Kaaawa — 1 room school building, teacher's cottage. 

Kailua — 1 room school building, teacher's cottage. 

Waipahu — 2 room addition. 

Kauluwela — 14 room school building. 

Manoa — 1 room school building. 

Moiliili — 2 room school building. 

Normal — science and laboratory rooms. 

Waialua — 4 room school building. 

WahiaAva — 1 room school building. 
Kauai — 

Waimea — 4 room school building. 

Ilanapepe — 10 room school building. 

Kalaheo^ — 2 room school building. 

Makaweli — 1 room addition. 

Koloa — 1 room addition. 

Lihue — 3 room school building. 
Hawaii — 

Hilo — 14 room school building. 

Papaikou — 3 room addition. 

Pahoa — 1 room addition. 

Olaa 9 Miles — 1 room addition. 

Mt. View — 1 room addition. 

Napoopoo — 1 room addition. 

Konawaena^ — 1 room addition. 

Mahukona — 1 room school building. 

Laupahoehoc' — 3 room addition. 

Pohakupuka — 2 room school building. 

Hakalau — 2 room addition. 



34 

Honomu — 1 room addition. 

Opihikaii — 1 room with teacher's apartments. 
Matji — 

Hana — -i room school building. 

Keanae — 2 room school building and cottage. 

Keokeo — teachers' cottage. 

Kaupakahia — teacher's cottage. 

Olowalu — teacher's cottage. 

Total public revenue collected in the United States, $1,487.- 
234,578. 

Expenditure for public common schools, $307,765,659. 

Expenditure for all public schools, $399,688,910. 

Total public revenue collected in HaAvaii, $4,276,733. 

Available for Territorial uses, $2,669,748. , 

Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii, $379,567. 

Expenditure for all public schools in Hawaii, $470,632. 

Expenditure for public common schools in the U. S. is 20.7 
per cent, of the total revenue. 

Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii is 8.8 
per cent of total revenue. 

Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii is 14 
per cent of revenue available for Territorial uses. 

Expenditure for all public schools in the U. S. is 27 per 
cent of total revenue. 

Expenditure for all public schools in Hawaii is 11 per cent 
of total revenue. 

Expenditure for all public schools in Hawaii is 17 per cent 
of revenue available for Territorial uses. 

No. XVIII. 

NEED OF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN SCHOOLS OF 

HAWAII. 

Mainland statistics show that: 

Twenty to twenty-five per cent of children in country schools 
have defective eyes. 

Approximately thirty per cent of children in city schools 
have defective eyes. 



35 

Five per cent of children in city schools have defective ears. 

Teachers can discover 75 to 85 per cent of cases needing 
treatment. 

Fifty to 75 per cent of parents notified of defects of chil- 
dren afford means of relief. 

ISTinety-five per cent of children affected can under proper 
treatment be allowed to attend school without d,anger of spread- 
ing infection. 

Medical inspection and treatment reduced absenteeism in 
'New York City 72 per cent in two years. 

LOCAL. 

During the last year the Board of Health has examined 
15,599 school children, refused 1,832 health certificates, vac- 
cinated 3,724 school children, given 17,967 treatments for 
trachoma and conjunctivitis. 

In one year the Honolulu Dispensary gave the following- 
treatments for children from only twelve of our city schools: 

Tonsilitis 2 

Asthma 12 

Bronchitis 10 

Scabies 18 

Mumps 24 

Eczema 6 

Cough 59 

Heart trouble 20 

Toothache 25 

Extraction 65 

Boils 17 

Styes 19 

Earache 20 

Forty-one other causes necessitating 658 treatments. 

If twelve schools show the above results, what will the 153 
public schools show ? 



36 

No. XIX. 

AGE, ATTENDANCE, COMPULSOKY AND VOLUN- 
TAKY— PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HAWAII— CO MP UL- 
SOEY SIX TO FIFTEEN YEARS. 

. AGES FOR FREE ATTENDANCE AT PUBLIC SCIIOOES. 

(1904) Report Commissioner of Education at Washington.) 

FiA-e to twenty-one years — Maine, New York. Mississippi, 
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Idaho, Virginia, South 
Dakota. 

Six to twenty-one years — Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland;, 
West A^irginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, 
Florida, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Ohio,' Indiana, Colorado, Ari- 
zona, Washington, Oregon and California. 

Six to seventeen years — District of (Vdumbia. 

Six tO' eighteen years — Georgia, Louisiana, Ctah and Ne- 
vada. 

Six to twenty years — Kentucky, Missouri and North Dakota. 

Four to twenty years — New Jersey and Wisconsin. 

Five to twenty years — Michigan. 

Seven tO' seventeen years — Texas. 

Seven to twenty-one years — Alabama. 

Unlimited — Vermont, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 

Five to unlimited — New Hampshire. 

COMPULSORY. 

Six to fourteen years — Indiana and California. 

Seven to thirteen years — Rhode Island. 

vSeven to fourteen years — Massachusetts, Connecticut, New 
Jersey, Kentucky, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and New Mexico. 

Sevent to fifteen yc^ars — Maine, Michigan and Nebraska. 

Seven to sixteen years — Wyoming, 

Eight to fourteen years — New Hampshire, District of Co- 
lumbia, West Virginia, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and Colorado. 



37 

Eight to fifteen years — Vermont, Kansas and Washington. 

Eight to sixteen years — Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio and 
Minnesota. 

No eompulsory law — Delaware, North Carolina, South Car- 
olina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian Territory and 
Missouri. 

No. XXII. 

"It is all right to teach them reading, writing and arithme- 
tic," said Moir. "At least, enough to get along with, but I be- 
lieve that that is practically all the book studies they need, and 
that the time which the children put in at school wouhl be 
spent tx> far greater advantage to them if they were instructed 
to a greater extent than is done at present in various trades, 
such as carpentry, blacksmithing and so forth, so that they 
would know something by whi(di they could make a living when 
they left school. The schools have in the past turned out a 
lot of educated loafers. They all want positions as bookkeep- 
ers aud clerks, and they can not get such jobs; at least, only 
a few of them can. 

"While the boys should be taught trades, the girls should 
be given thorough instruction in the various housekeeping arts, 
such as sewing, cooking, etc., so they would be able to talve 
care of a house when they left school. The trouble in this coun- 
try is that so many of the young girls know nothing whatever 
about houseke('])iug. Then they, get married, and when it 
comes to getting up a meal the}' don't know how to do' it. Then 
there is a row and unhappiness." — Interview with John T. 
Moir, Conimissioaior of Public Instruction, Territory of 
Hawaii. 



38 

No. XXIV. 

INADEQUATE SCHOOL ACCJOMMODATIOX A 
CAUSE OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. 

'"During tJie last year the attenflance at the Boys' Reform 
School increased from 95 to 149 and at the Girls' Reform 
School from 37 to 53." 

(Extract from letter of Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion to Chairman of Education Committee, House of Repre- 
sentatives, March 22, 1909.) 

To snitably accommodate in school all children now apply- 
ing for admittance, 82 additional teachers are required and 
much additional building. 



39 



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40 

The foregoing figures do not include the specific property tax, 
inheritance tax, insurance tax, income tax, or penalties, costs 
and interest. 

Fiscal Year June 30th. 

Expenditures For School Purposes. 

1901-2 $ 324,020.81 

1903 403,913.66 

1904 409,048.84 

1905 336,359.59 

1906 361,458.99 

1907 349,933.14 

1908 467,555.05 

1909 446,832.60 

1910 433,818.92 



,532,941.60 



The sums above have been spent out of Current Funds. 
These figiires are for the carrying on of the Department of 
Public Instruction and do not include money taken from the 
Loan Fund on account of school buildings. 



'^iD'- 



The figures herewith show an expenditures of 27^% from 
the real and personal property tax of 1% and of 13 9-10% from 
the total Current Revenue of the Territory. For every dollar 
of real and personal property taxes collected the schools have 
had 27^ cents; for every dollar of the entire revenue (cur- 
rent) of the Territory the schools have, had 13 9-10 cents for 
the last ten years. 

The Current Revenue of the Territory by fiscal years has 
been from all sources : 



41 

June 30th. 

1901-2 $ 2,549,101.78 

1903 2,648,262.58 

1904 2,560,356.33 

1905 2,354,813.02 

1900 3,320,998.90 

1907 2,710,624.00 

1908 2,609,748.32 

1909 3,051,520.81 

1910 3,494,412.57 

$25,305,904.31 

No. XXVI. 

EDUCATIO^f Report, 1906. 

(Page IX.) 

To'tial disburements by the United States Gov- 
ernment (estimated) $ 747,234,578 

Estimated expenditure by the States 130,000,000 

Estimated expenditure by minor civil divisions 010,000.000 

Total Public Expenditure $1,487,234,578 

Public expenditure for common schools $ 307.705,059 

Expenditure for private elementary and sec- 
ondary schools (partly estimated) 21,370,309 

Expenditure for universities, colleges and 

technological schools . 44,783,320 

Expenditures for nonnal schools. .- 0,748,924 

Expenditures for professional schools (partly 

estimated) \ 3,000,000 

Expenditure for schools for the defective 

classes 7,039,503 

Expenditure for reform schools 5,381,189 

Expenditure for commercial schools estimated 3,000,000 



Total Expenditure for Education $ 399.088,910 



42 

* Of tJie total amount expended for all public purposes by the 
States, counties, pities, towns, etc., ($740,000,000) over two- 
fifths (41.59 per cent) was paid for common schools. 

The gi'owth of this form of public expenditure in recent 
years is significant. Since 1870 the increase per capita of 
population has been from $1.64 to $3.57, or a gain of almost 
124 per cent. For each pupil in average attendance the expendi- 
ture has increased from $15.25 to $26.27, a gain of almost 70 
per cent. In the same time the 'amount of money invested in 
school property has in terms of per capita of population in- 
creased about 175 per cent. 

The sources of this income for school purjjoses are to be 
found mainly in the taxable property of the country. The 
gross value of this taxable property has also increased greatly 
since 1870, but the per capita increase has not been equal to 
that of school expenditure. The average per capita wealth of 
the nation (in terms of taxable property) in 1870 is given as 
$624.00, while in 1904 it had increased to $1234.00, or an in- 
crease of nearly 100 per cent. ; but in the meantime the per 
capita expenditure for schools had increased 124 per cent. 

Increased outlay of money is involved in almost every adr 
vance step that is proposed in public education. Better teach- 
ers can only be had through the expenditure of more money 
for salaries ; a reduction of the number of pupils per teacher 
in cities means gi*eater outlay ; and the development of new 
types of schools and school facilities also involves increased ex- 
penditure. 

School expenditures per capita of average attendance during 
1907-1908 in the United Stafes was $30.55; Xorth Atlantic 
Division, $42.88; Western Division, $44.65. 



43 
DUTY OF THE STATE TO EDUCATE ITS CITIZENS. 

(From the Educational Review.) 

The right of the state to educate is in this country almost uni- 
versally admitted. That right rests upon no unsubstantial or 
visionary foundation. It is implied in the end for which men 
have established government. The end of government is to ac- 
complish the objects of organized society. Among the chief 
objects of organized society are, first, the development of the 
best powers — intellectual, moral 'and physical — of the individ- 
ual; and second, equality of opportimity in the pursuit of 
whatever makes life worth living. 

Universal education is the one essential condition under 
which these objects may be realized. Without universal edu- 
cation there can not be equality of opportunity for all. 

To provide, to insure, and to compel universal education is 
an undertaking far beyond the powers of any authority short 
of the state itself. As John Stuart Mill argued, because par- 
ents are unable or unwilling to provide the best education for 
their children, or being able and willing to provide education, 
do not know what the best education is, the state must under- 
take the work. 

Without universal education, moreover, no government that 
rests upon popular action can long endure. 

Where the people are sovereign, the people must be schooled 
in the knowledge and in the virtues upon which free institu- 
tions depend. If for no other reason, public schools are neces^ 
sary to keep alive the traditions of our history; are necessary 
lest we forget the glories of Yorktown and Bunker Hill, the 
principles of the Declaration, and the memories of Washingi;on 
and Lincoln. 



44 

The Public School Is a State and Not a Local, oe 
Municipal Institution. 

{From, the Educational Review.) 

Judge Chester of the Supreme Court of the State of New 
York handed down a decision on December 4th, 1898, that is 
of great interest to all students of our educational system. 

The City of Watervliet has a population of about twenty-live 
thousand, and one of those ingeniously bad modern devices 
known as a bi-partisan school board. Two members of this 
Board, were Republicans and two were Democrats. This Board 
fixed September 7th as the date for the opening of the schools. 
During August many attempts were made to elect a superin- 
tendent of schools, a corps of teachers, janitors, and truant of- 
ficers, but every proposition brought forward was defeated by 
a tie vote, cast on party lines. September 7th came and went, 
and the children of Watervliet were not in school. Matters 
dragged along in this intelligent and praiseworthy condition 
until October 1st, when the Mayor of the city took the matter 
into his hands and, designated teachers to open the schools. He 
was promptly enjoined by the Court. Then tJie matter was 
carried where it should have gone long before, to State Super- 
intendent Skinner. This officer at once ordered the Watervliet 
board of education to appoint the necessary number of qualified 
teachers and to open the schools. These political patronage 
hunters paid no attention to Mr. Skinner, who straightaway, on 
October 4th, took charge of the situation himself. He desig- 
nated an ad intemin superintendent, teachers, janitors and tru- 
ant officers. On October 5th, the schools opened, and fifteen 
hundred Watervliet children have, despite their worthy board 
of education, been receiving instruction ever since. 

One-half of the board of education then asked the Court to 
enjoin the Stat© Superintendent from pursuing their policy, 
and as a result to turn the children of their neighbors into the 
streets again until they could carry their political point. The 
decision of Judg(>) Chester denied the application for an injimc- 
tion and upheld Superintendent Skinner's action absolutely. 

In his opinion Jud.ge Chester lays down the incontestable 
rule that the jiublic school is a state and not a local, or munici- 



45 

pal, institution. This is a hard lesson for many school boards, 
politicians, and newspapers to learn, but it is true nevertheless. 
Indeed,, upon it depend the safety and the very existence of the 
public schools. In this particular case the local school board, 
representing not their own whims but the people of the State 
of IsTew York, refused to do their duty, and a higher ofhcer, 
representing those same people of the State of New York, 
stepped in and did it for them. The Supreme Court has now 
sustained his action. 

Tlie case has attracted wide attention, and may have in it 
the means of at least partially enlightening those reiterant 
persons who keep up a perpetual clatter about '"home rule" in 
school administration. 



46 
THE PUBLIC LANDS AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

In order to realize the relation of the public lands of the 
United States to public education, it may be well to review 
briefly some of the legislation and history of our country. 

When, in the year 1777, the Continental Congress had fram- 
ed the ''Articles of Confederation," and submitted them to the 
several States for ratification, six of the thirteen States claimed 
the ownership of the immense tracts of unsettled country ex- 
tending from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi. Massachusetts 
claimed a strip of land equal in width to the width, north and 
south, of the state, based upon the Charter of the Colony, 
granted by William and Mary in 1691, which described the 
lands granted thereby as extending "from the Atlantic or West- 
em Sea and Ocean on the east, to the South Sea on the west 
parte." 

In this condition of affairs the State of Maryland, ably rep- 
resented in the Continental Congress, and. with a State Legis- 
lature composed of able and cultivated citizens, came to the 
front and took high and strong grounds against the claims of 
all and each of the States that asserted titles to the lands be- 
tween the Alleghenies and the Mississippi. 

First Move for Schools. 

The first move that was ever made in Congress toward the 
assertion of national sovereignty over this western country was 
made by Maryland "that the United States in Congress as- 
sembled shall have the sole and exclusive right and power to 
ascertain and fix the western boundary of such States as lay 
claim to the Mississippi or South Sea as a western bomidary, 
and (to) lay out the land beyond the boundary so ascertained 
into separate and independent States, from time to time as the 
numbers and circumstances of the people may require. 

The credit of suggesting and successfully urging in Con- 
gress that policy which has made this country a great national 
commonwealth, composed of "free, convenient, and independ- 
ent governments," bound together by ties of permanent terri- 
torial interest, the credit of originating this policy belongs to 
Maryland, and to her alone. 



47 

Grants of Public Lands mada by Congress of the United 
States, for Public Education, to the Trans-Allegheny States. 

An ordinance adopted by Congress May 20, 1785, provides 
for the division of the public lands into to^^iiships of six sec- 
tions each containing one square mile and numbered from 1 
to 36 ; and then provides that "there shall be reserved the Lot 
No. IG of every township for maintenance of public schools 
within said township." This left open the question whether 
the public schools that the United States had endowed should 
be under National or State control. By an Act approved March 
3, 1803, Congress disj)osed of this open question by vesting in 
the legislature all lands granted to Ohio for the use of schools 
"in trust for the use aforesaid, and for no other use, intent, or 
purpose whatsoever." 

Larger Donations 

In the enabling acts passed by Congress, as each State west 
of the Alleghenies was admitted into the Union, substantially 
the same provision was engrafted, until the State of Califor- 
nia was admitted. Congress donated for the maintenanc«i of 
public schools to California, and to each State admitted subse- 
quently up to the present time, two sections, ITo. 16 and Xo. 36 
in each township. The public lands so granted by the United 
States for public schools to the several States, beginning with 
Ohio, are equivalent, therefore, to one thirty-sixth part of the 
whole area of each State until the admission of California ; and 
in the case of California and each State subsequently admitted 
are equivalent to one-eighteenth part of the whole area of each 
State, and amount in the aggregate to 67,893,919 acres. 

Besides, vast quantities of public land have been granted to 
the Trans- Allegheny States for State universities and for other 
educational institutions. 

Dal'ota Lands and Schools. 

By way of example, the enabling act for the State of South 
Dakota and three other states, passed by Congress and approved 
February 22, 1889, grants public lands to the State of South 
Dakota as follows: for the school of miners, 40,000 acres; for 
the reform school, 40,000 acres ; for the agricultural college, 40,- 



48 

000 acres; for the university, 40,000; for the State normal 
school, 80,000 acres; for public buildings at the capital of said 
State, 50,000 acres ; and for such other educational and charit- 
able purposes as the legislature of said State may determine; 
170,000 acres— in all, nearly 500,000 acres. 

Section 11 of same act provides that ''all lands herein granted 
for educational purposes shall be disposed of only at public 
sale, and at a- prices not less than ten dollars per acre." (The 
value of the grants aggregating nearly $5,000,000, besides the 
lands for common schools.) 

Want Their Share. 

The States west of the Alleghenies tliat have received only 
one section of land for every township for public schools are 
very properly moving to obtain an equivalent for the other sec- 
tion received by the States admitted later, beginning with Cali- 
fornia. As the result of this general movement, three bills 
were introduced at the last session of Congress providing for 
the equitable adjustment of the claims of all the States to the 
proceeds of the public lands for public education. 

There are other States which have received none of the pub- 
lic lands for public schools, and still other States that have re- 
ceived only one section in every to^nishi]?. 

It is to be hoped that there will be brought about through 
the action of Congress, a just and fair equalization of the dis- 
tribution of the public lands still owned by the United States — 
the common property of all the citizens of tlie union — for the 
support of public schools. 

After such equalization, or contemporaneously therewith, we 
are ready to join our brethren of all the States in favor of the 
proposition of Judge Draper, that the 600,000,000 acres of 
public lands still undisposed of by the federal government 
"shall be sacredly devoted to the cause of education of the 
masses" — the cause which Horace Mann declared to be the 
greatest ever proclaimed by man. 



49 

THE FIXAXCIAT^ OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

(From School Administration by Dutton and Sneddeu.) 

Expenditure for Education. 

The United, States Commissioner of Education estimates in 
his report for 1906 (p. ix) that the various States had spent, 
during; the preceding fiscal year, tlie sum of over $307,000,000 
on public elementary and secondary schools. This represents 
over two-fifths of all expenditures for public purposes by state, 
counties, cities, towns, etc., and is over 20 per cent, of all forms 
of public expenditure, including that of the United States gov- 
ernment. Of this amount a.bout 3.5 per cent, is derived from 
income on permanent state or local funds, 15 per cent, from 
state taxation, TO per cent, from local (county, toAvn, or dis- 
trict) taxation, and the remainder from various special sources, 
usually fines, license fees, etc. The value of school propevtv is 
given 'at $783,000,000. 

Estimated in terms of population, the amount annually 
raised for the support of public education is equivalent to $3.67 
per capita, or, in terms of the number of pupils in average daily 
attendance, $26.27 per capita.. The value of school property 
is over $9 per capita of population and almost $70 per capita 
of average attendance. 

Steady Growih. 

The growth of this form of public expenditure in recent 
years is significant. Since 1870, the increase per capita of 
population has been from $1.64 tO' $3.57, or a gain of almost 
124 per cent. For each pupil in average attendance the ex- 
penditure has increased from $15.25 to $26.27, a gain of al- 
most 70 per cent. In the same time the amount of money in- 
vested in school property has in terms of per capita of popula- 
tion increased about 175 per cent. 

Tax Property for Schools. 

The sources of this income for school purposes are to be 
found mainly in the taxable j^roperty of tlie country. The gross 
value of this taxable property has also increased greatly since 
1870, but the per capita increase has not been equal to that of 



50 

school expeoiditure. The average per capita wealtli of the na- 
tion (in terms of taxable property) in 1870 is given as $034, 
while in 1904 it had increased to $1234, or an increase of 
nearly 100 per cetnt; but in the meantime the per capita ex- 
penditure for schools had increased 124 per cent. 

Money to Imiwove. 

Increased outlay of money is involved in almost every ad- 
vance step that is proposed in public education. Better teach- 
ers can only be had through the exjDcaiditure of more money 
for salaries; a reduction of the number of pupils per teacher 
in cities means greater outlay; the lengthening of the school 
year in rural districts can be purchased only through higher 
local or state taxation; and the development of new types of 
schools and school facilities also involves increased expenditure. 
Other matters, like more adequate supervision, the increase in 
the size of the area of even distribution of school funds so as 
to confer larger support on the poorer regions, and the more 
extensive provision of free text-books and better material facili- 
ties for education, can only be purchased through very mater- 
ially increased financial outlay. 

Education" a Social Investment. 

The enormous outlay for education already made by the 
United vStates is not always sufficiently regarded as a form of 
social investment,. Altogether apart from moral and other con- 
siderations, it should be evident that money wisely spent on ed- 
ucation ultimately returns to the community excellent interest. 

Commissioneir Harris has produced some figures which tend 
to show that in Massachusetts the productive capacity of the 
average individual is considerably greater than in the country 
at large, and the inference that this is due to the superior edu- 
cational facilities enjoyed by the State is at least tentatively 
justifiable. It is not always as easy for the communit,y to see 
the direct returns tlrat come from money investcid in education 
as in the case of expenditure for roads or other ])ublic improve»- 
ment. Yet in the long'i^n this must he true, and. it is the func- 
rion of those who seek to justify increased public expenditure 
for schools to make it clear. In this connection, owino- to the 



51 

increasing mobility of population, there is reason to justify the 
existence of larger taxing units. A small town may not desire 
to tax itself heavily, for example, for industrial education if it 
finds that its best men steadily drift away to other centres after 
receiving their training. But for the state at large, or even 
the nation, to assume a part of this burden would be entirely 
justifiable, since in the larger unit the benefits resulting from 
heavy outlay would ultimately tend to be felt by those who have 
paid the taxes, or at least by the community of which they are 
■a part. 

1, Sources of Revenue in Different States. 
Invested Funds. 

Besides several minor sources, the public schools of the vari- 
ous States derive their chief revenue from three directions: 
income on permanent funds, largely created by lands donated 
to the States by the national government; state taxation, and 
taxation in local areas under 'authorization of State law. 

Of the $322,000,000 raised by the various States in 1905- 
1906 for the common schools, 3.6 per cent, came from income 
on permanent funds, but this amoimt varied largely among the 
different States. ISTevada derives over 46 per cent. ; Texas over 
28 per cent, Michigan over 23 per cent., and Wyoming over 
21 per cent, of their school revenue from permanent invest- 
ments; while seven other states (Alabama, Mississippi, Okla- 
homa, Minnesota, ISTorth Dakota, and Oregon) derive more 
than 10 per cent of their income from these sources. ISTaturally 
the l^'orth Atlantic States have very small invested funds, hav- 
ing had little public land, while in the Southern and Western 
states, where care has been taken of the donations made by the 
National Government, revenues from this source are relatively 
large. 

State Taxation. 

State taxation for school purposes also varies greatly. In 
some States apparently no provision is made, as Oklahoma, 
Michigan, Iowa, jSTorth Dalcota, South Dakota, Kansas, Wyom- 
ing, Colorado, and Oregon. In other States, like Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, Illinois, Minnesota, and J^ebraska, the con- 



52 

tribution to school revoniies from State taxation is less than 5 
per cent. On the other hand, in nearly all the Southern States 
this source of revenue is large, varying from 20 to 70 per cent. 

California raises over 45 per cent, of the school revenue by 
various forms of State taxation, New Jersey over 30 per cent., 
Indiana 15 per cent., and Missouri over 12 per cent. Later 
discussion of the various sources of revenue will show that 
whereas State taxation has the advantage over local taxation of 
relieving the schools from the fluctuations of local support, it 
m'ay or may not equalize educational opportunity, according to 
the manner of its distribution within the State. 

Local School Taxes. 

Local Taxation obviously is the mainstay of public educa- 
tion. But local taxation, too, takes several forms. Jt may be 
county taxation, in which case tJiere may be tendencies towards 
equalization of educational opportunities within the county ; 
or it may be purely local to the town, city, or district, in which 
case popular opinion plays a considerable part in determining 
its amornit and in appreciating the results of its expenditure. 

In ISTew Hampshire and, Massachusetts over 90 per cent, of 
all school revenue is raised by purely local taxation ; in Rhode 
Island, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, South Dakota, Kansas, Colorado, 
Arizona, and. Oregon from 80 to 90 per cent. In North Caro- 
lina, South Carolina, and Mississippi the amount sO' raised is 
less than 20 per cent., and besides these only in Georgia, Ken- 
tucky, Alabam,a, Texas, Montana, Nevada, and Washington is 
it less than 50 per cent. 

Total Revenue. 

But thei full significance of state and local taxation can only 
be appreciated when taken in connection with the entire rela- 
tive outlay of the States for public education. Since totals are 
quite meaningless unless taken m connection either with popu- 
lation or number of children to be educated, we can sim])ly re- 
fer to the commissioner's re])0Tt for the former, and give the 
latter in abridged form. 



53 

Taking all the States together, the amount raised for public 
education in 1905-1906 was equivalent to $12.89 for each per- 
son between five and eighteen years of age, the ordinary limits 
of attendance in public schools. But in one State (ISTevada) 
the amount so raised was in excess of $30; while in Massa- 
chusetts, ISl'ew York, Colorado, and California it exceeded $25 ; 
and in ISTorth Dakota, Montana, and Washington it was in ex- 
cess of $20. But in three States (Xorth Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Alabama) this amount was under $3 ; while in four others 
(Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Indian Territory) it was 
under $4. In all the States of the South Atlantic and South 
Central divisions the amount was under $10, averaging $4.04; 
while in all the ^orth Central States it was over $10, averaging 
$14.74; and in all the States of the Western division, except 
]Srew Mexico, it was over $12, averaging $21.19. 

Excepting Maine and i^ew Hampshire, which respectively 
raised over $12 and over $14 per child of from five to eighteen 
years of age, no State of the J^orth Atlantic division raised less 
than $15; while the average for this group is $21.56. 

In other M'ords, if estimated in terms of money raised, the 
educational opportunities of the child in the Westera division 
or the ISTorth Atlantic division are from four to five times as 
good as those of the child of the South Atlantic or South C/en- 
tral division. 

2. State Legislation liEGULATiNG the Raising and Ex- 

PENDITUKE OF SCHOOL FuNDS. 

Varieties of Finmicial Legislation. 

In the course of the evolution of the school systems within 
the various States, legislation in regard to financial matters 
has been varied and extensive. A considerable part of the codi- 
fied school law of the States deals with the raising and dis- 
bursements of fimds. 

This legislation may be studied under several heads: 

(a) A primitive stage affecting schools everywhere is that 
which permits or legalizes the action of local communi- 
ties : 



54 

(b) Legislation fixing maxima 'and minima in matters of 
taxation, representing on tJie one haiicl the desire of tlie 
State to protect the local community, and on the other 
to hold tlie latter up to its obligations. Under this head 
may be studied thci legislation which, without specify- 
ing the amount to be raised, compels the district to pro- 
vide certain types of facilities ; 

(c) Laws determining taxing bodies, and locating re- 
sponsibility ; 

(d) Laws fixing the machinery for the distribution of 
funds ; and 

(e) Laws controlling form of expend itiire, under which 
head may be studied legal control of bondi issaies. 

Permissive Taxation. 

(a,) Long before the State roaches the stage where it may 
enforce the establishment of certain types of educational facil- 
ity, it is importuned to permit progressive communities to tax 
themselves for the new form of expenditure. An analysis of 
current laws shows that a wide range is permitted in powers 
of local taxation ; cities are conceded privileges in the establish- 
ment of evening schools, vocational schools, and playgrounds; 
country districts are permitted to expend money for the trans- 
portation of pupils; towns and districts are authorized to sup- 
ply free textrbooks; towns of certain size may provide expert 
supervision; training classes may be established; libraries may 
be formed ; and numerous other kinds of local expenditure be- 
come authorized. In many States public secondary schools have 
first been established by permission extended to localities desir- 
ing them. In time the establishment of high schools in certain 
types of districts may become compulsory, and the last stage 
is found when all school teiTitory is attached to some high 
school district and is obliged to contribute to the support of sec- 
ondary education. 

Prescriptive Taxation. 

(b) A second stage is found where legislation prescribes lim- 
its of taxation, or compels the performance of certain functions 
which involve expense. In many cases the law fixes a rate of 
State taxation or an amount which the State must raise. 



55 

Of such a nature is the one-mill tax on all property pre- 
scribed by the laws of Virginia, Minnesota, Maine, and Ohio 
among others; the two-mill taxes of Illinois, the one-and-a-half- 
mill tax of Tennessee, and the one-and-onertenth mill tax of 
Indiana, and the two-mill tax of New Mexico, limited to salary 
purposes. 

The constitution of Pennsylvania, fixes the sum of $1,000,- 
000 as the minimum amount which the Assembly must an- 
nually levy. 

jN^orth Carolina requii-es that the State government appro- 
priate, in addition to the interest on regular funds, the sum of 
$100,000 annually among the counties, and an additional $100,- 
000, "or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appro- 
priated 'annually out of the State treasury for the purpose of 
bringing up the constitutional requirement of a four months' 
public school term in each district" which can not otherwise 
raise enough money for that term. Of this nature, also, is the 
"su.m of $7 for each census child between the ages of five and 
seventeen in the state," which must he raised hy a property tax 
in California. For the aid of secondary education California 
provides a State tax of one and one-half cents on eacli huudr(?d 
dollars of valuation, but which, after 1906, shall be "estimated 
by determining the amount of $15 per pupil in average daily at- 
tendance" the preceding year. 

Prescribed Minimumi Bate. 

The State may impose a fixed uiinimum on local communi- 
ties. In Oregon each county is required to levy a. tax on all 
property of such amount as will raise at least $7 for each per- 
son from four to twenty years old in the county. In Connecti- 
cut towns are, under certain conditions, entitled to State as- 
sistance, but not until they shall have raised a tax of at least 
four mills locally. 

In California the county must raise such a sum as, added to 
the State appropriation, will make $550 for each teacher (or 
group of seventy census children requiring one teacher.) 

In Nevada where the State tax is large (six mills), the 
county must levy a tax of at least one and one-half mills and 
not exceeding five mills. 



56 

In ISTew Hampshire "the selectmen of each town shall assess 
annually upon the polls and ratable real estate' taxable therein, 
a sum to be computed at the rate of $750 for ©very dollar of 
public taxes apportioned to such town. ..." and ''the town may 
raise an amount exceeding the aforesaid which shall be as- 
sessed in the same manner." 

The County Board of South Carolina is obliged to levy a tax 
of three mills. 

In Maine each town must raise for school purposes "not less 
tban eighty cents for each inhabitant, according to the cen- 
sus," "under penalty of forfeiting not less than twice nor more 
than four times the amount of its deficiency." 

In Ohio the local tax levy may not exceed twelve mills, "and 
in city school districts shall not be less than six mills." 

In ]S[ew York the so-called Davis law fixes the rate for New 
York City 'at three mills, and special legislation has also pro- 
vided Philadelphia with a. fixed rate of taxation for school pur- 
poses. 

Prescribed Maxinvutn. 

The fixing of a maximum rate which local communities may 
not exceed is very common in State laws. Undoubtedly it has 
been the experience of some States, especially where district 
or town meetings are not influential in fixing rates of taxation, 
that abuses have crept in and extravagance has resulted. It 
has already been noticed that with the development of legisla- 
tion in the South following the Civil War, there was a. strong 
disposition to protect local communities from tlie extravagance 
of propeirtyless voters. Laws of this nature are illustrated by 
the example of Indiana, Avhich permits town trustees to levy 
special taxes, "but no tax shall exceed five mills on property and 
one dollar on poll" ; Ohio, where the "local tax levy for school 
purposes sliall not exceed twelve mills on the dollar" ; Virginia, 
where tiie sui^ervisors may levy a special school tax, but not. to 
exceed two and a half mills ; Utah, where in regard to city taxa- 
tion the law provides "that the tax for the support and. main- 
tenance of auch schools shall not exceed in any one year six and 
one-half mills ... of which at least three mills shall not be used 
otherwise than for the payment of teachers . . . ." ; and in 
Minnesota, where — 



57 

"In common- school district such district school tax 
shall not exceed fifteen mills on the dollar for the sup- 
port of schools, or ten mills for the purchase of school 
sites and the erection aiid the equipment of school 
buildings ; but in such districts in which such ten-mill 
tax produces six hundred dollars, a greater tax may be 
levied for school sites and buildings, not to exceed 
twenty- five mills nor six hundred dollars." 

Basis of Distribution. 

(d) When the State has funds to distribute for the support 
of schools, or when, similarly, the county distributes money 
among the towns or districts, the method of distribution has a' 
very important bearing on the provision of school facilities. 
(Communities vary greatly in their ability to pay taxes as re- 
lated to their educational needs. Large cities, for example, fre- 
quently have a high per capita wealth, while niral commiuiities 
not infrequently have a small per capita wealth, yet in the lat- 
ter the number of children to be educated in proportion to popu- 
lation may be in excess of the former. In rural districts, even 
where the per capita wealth may be equal, the numbers of chil- 
dren may vary considerably, all of whom in each case, however, 
can be taught by one teacher. 

It costs nearly as much to conduct a school in a district with 
ten children as in one with forty-five. Hence, if County and 
State pay over to districts amounts of money proportional to 
what tliey raise, the large districts ^vith a low per capita wealth 
will be at a relatively disadvantage, as will also districts with 
little wealth and few children to be educated, who will, how- 
ever, take the full time of a teacher. Since the amount of 
school money raised in many States by the State or by the 
County is large, tie methods of distributing this money come 
to be of great importance. 

First Method. 

The first method of distribution is that found in counties 
where educational administration! is highly centralized, and 
where the governing board is 'authorized to distribute county 
moneys to the districts, according tO' the option of such boards. 
Bv the Countv School Board of Viro-inia "the county school 



58 

fund shall be apportioned among the several districts of the 
county, according to its judgijient, having due regard to main- 
taining as far as practicable^, a uniform term throughout 'all 
of the districts," and providing that a term of four months be 
maintained for all primary and grammar schools before funds 
may be used for the establishment of schools of a. higher grade. 
The complete control over the schools of the Louisiana par- 
ish (the equivalent of the county) by the parish board is, in 
effect, the same as giving that body powers of distributing school 
moneys at will among the districts, which here have trustees 
(auxiliary trustees) only if the parish board deem it desirable. 

Second Method. 

The second method of distribution, and one characterizing 
primitive educational conditions, is for the State or the County 
to return to the school area exactly its share of taxes relative to 
its taxable valuation. In tliis case the State or the County be- 
comes simply the taxing body, but no districts profit or lose by 
this centralization. As a rule, this form of distribution belongs 
to the earlier stages of the development of State funds raised 
by taxation, though whenever a change in existing schemes of 
distribution is proposed, there is always considerable pressure 
on the part of wealthy cities for some form of material recog- 
nition of the contention that their larger payments somehow en- 
title them to larger returns. 

In Pennsylvania ^'one^third of (tJae state money) shall be 
distributed on the basis of the number of teachers employed for 
the full annual term of the district, .... one-third on the basis 
of the number of children of school age, .... and one-third on 
the basis of the number of taxables." 

Third Metliod. 

A third method of distributing State or County funds is the 
very common one of taking as the basis of educational need 
either total population or school population, the latter meaning 
the number of children supposedly in need of schooling. The 
method of distributing funds according to total population is 
little used, largely owing to the greater convenience and satis- 
faction of taking the census only of school children and, per- 



59 

haps, owing tO' a vague uotion that the number of school chil- 
dren is a more reliable basis than total population. If States 
are tempted to use the national census as a basis, it is found 
that changes in population take place rapidly in soine sections, 
and the need of a more frequent census becomes apparent. 
Hence in a large number of States the so-called school census 
basis is used in distributing school money to the Counties, and 
frequently by the comities to districts or towns. Sometimes 
State funds are distributed 'among the Counties on the basis of 
their school census population and by the Counties to the dis- 
tricts on the same basis; or the counties, receiving the State 
funds, distribute them on some other basis. 

The school census basis of apportionment works out pecidiar 
results in the case of the rural district, since the expense of the 
single teacher to the rural school is, or ought tO' be, substan- 
tially the same, whether the number of children in the district 
is large or small, so long as they can well be taught by one 
teacher. But whei'e Counties distribute money to rural dis- 
tricts in proportion to number of children, a district with ten 
children will receive only one^fourth as much as a district with 
forty children. The consequence is that, within the County, 
this method of distributing funds fails manifestly to secure 
equality of educational opportunity. Again, where Counties 
vary considerably in the relative number of rural districts they 
contain, the system of State distribution among counties on the 
census basis also tends to produce considerable inequalities. 

The County which has a large number of its children in vil- 
lage schools, obliged to employ not more than one teacher for 
each forty or forty-five children, in attendance, will receive pro- 
portionately to number of teachers employed a much larger 
sum than is received by a County with a large number of its 
children in rural schools requiring teachers for each group of 
ten, fifteen, or twenty children. 

ITotwithstanding this inequality, all of the jSTorth Central 
States, except Indiana and JSTebraska, distribute their large 
State funds, both from State to County and from County to 
town or district on the strict census basis. 

The consolidation of schools, of course, tends to remove the 
inequality, for, apart from, the small rural school, the census 
basis of apportionment serves its primary purpose fairly well. 



60 

To Correct Inequalities. 

To eoTrect the inequalities of the school census method, vari- 
ous devices are employed by a few States. 

In Indiana the State fund is distributed among the counties 
on the census basis, but the county auditor, in apportioning 
this among the cities, towns, and townships "shall ascertain the 
amount of Congressional towmship school revenue belonging to 
each city, town, or township, and shall apportion the other 
school revenue for tuition to each city, town, and township ac- 
cording to the enumeration of children therein." 

In Oregon the funds raised in the Counties (there is no State 
tax) are distributed on the census basis after a quota of $50 is 
allowed to each district and $5 for each teacher who has at- 
tended institute. 

In i*^ebraska the State distributes funds to Comities on cen- 
sus basis, and within the Counties, after adding whatever 
County school fund is available, the entire amount is distrib- 
uted as follows: "One-fourth of the whole amount to be dis- 
tributed equally to the several districts in the County, and the 
remaining three^fourths" to be distributed on census basis. 

The California system provides for a teacher quota of seventy 
census children (or any number between that and fifteen in 
rural districts), and the State fund is distributed to the conn- 
ties on the basis of $250 for each teacher on the teacher quota 
basis, and the remainder on the basis of average daily attend- 
ance during the preceding year in the various schools of the 
State. Within the county enough must be raised by local taxa- 
tion to make $550 for each teacher quota; after this is distrilv 
uted to the districts, the remainder is distributed on basis of 
average daily attendance. 

Other Distrihution Schemes. 

Other bases of distribution are school enrollment or average 
attendance. The lattor, it will be noticed, is partly employed 
in California. 

l^esw Hampshire provides an "equalization fund" for poorer 
districts, which is distributed "in direct proportion to said aver- 
age attendance and in inverse proportion to equalized valuation 



61 

per child (below three thousand dollars)." The "State literary 
fund" of the same State is apportioned among the towns pro- 
portioned to the number of "children of at least, five years who 
have attended not less than two weeks." 

In Minnesota, both from State to County and from County 
to district, fmids are apportioned on the basis of school enroll- 
ment, but no pupil may be counted more th'an. once, and not un- 
less he has attended school at least forty days in the year. But 
Minnesota provides, also, some forms of special aid for certain 
types of districts, including rural schools. 

Arizona requires the aj)propriation of $400 to each district 
having from ten to twenty census children, and $500 for each 
district having more than twenty children. In addition, $20 
must be appropriated for each child in average daily attendance 
in excess of twenty-five. 

The constitution of Florida provides that apportionment of 
State school funds shall be "in proportion to the average at- 
tendance upon such schools." 

3. Problems of Finance in American Education. 

Several large problems of educational finance are constantly 
claiming the attention of students of American education. Lit- 
tle can be done here except to formulate them and to call at- 
tention to certain aspects of more than usual interest. These 
are: 

(a) Possible sources of increased revenue, as education 

becomes more expensive ; 

(b) The relative proportion and kinds of school revenue 

which various taxing units should produce ; 

(c) The distribution of County funds to lesser units. 

Sources of Increased Revenue. 

(a) It has already been pointed out that the ex- 
penditure in American States on education has grown during 
the last forty years more rapidlj^ tlian population, and some- 
what more rapidly than per capita wealth. Xot only is this 
true of outlay for education, but it is also tnie in other chan- 
nels of public expenditure. In short, the fields of state and 



62 

})iiblic action are increasing, as every student of social condi- 
tion knows, and the cost of 'administration is increasing pro- 
portionately. 

The share of public money demanded, by education, how- 
ever, is so large that the administrator is peculiarly concerned 
with changes in the system of taxation which make the burdens 
more easily borne. 

So far, the taxation of i)rivate property has been the chief 
source of revenue of American States and localities. 

In the Southern States a variety of fines, licenses, and poll 
taxes have contributed to the support of schools. Inheritance 
taxes have been made considerable sources of revenue in some 
cases. 

Special tax commissions in jSTew York and Pennsylvania 
have wrought extensive changes to the extent, at least, of largely 
relieving real property from the burden of State taxation. It 
is the belief of many students that some forms of indirect taxa- 
tion like corporation and franchise taxes, should be developed 
within all the States, for the sake of taking from real property, 
to some extent, the burdens now put upon it. This may be of 
gre&ter importance in proportion as the State assumes a larger 
share in tlie raising of the school revenue as it will undoubt- 
edly tend to do in time. 

Terntorlal Distribution of Tax Burdens. 

(b) The advantage of large over small units of taxation are 
two: (a) giving greater uniformity and stability to the sup- 
ply of revenue; and (b) the equalization of educational oppor- 
tunities throughout the larger unit irrespective of local ability 
to pay taxes, by distributing revenues in proportion to educa- 
tional needs. But in all discussions of the expediency and so- 
cial soundness of raising school money in larger units, it has 
seldom been urged that the local community should be entirely 
relieved of responsibility. At present this is only possible, and 
that not uniformly, in some of the Southern States with County 
school administration as the chief source of authority. Except 
for certain forms of higher education, the National government 
does not serve as a taxing body for school purposes, but it has 
been shown that the relative per capita valuation of different 
States varies greatly, and at times it has been claimed that a 



63 

jSTational fund sliould be provided to aid those States which, 
like the Southern States after the Civil War, have been abso- 
lutely too poor to provide good educational facilities. In other 
words, if for the good of the commonwealth the State should tax 
itself and distribute the revenues with reference to local needs, 
so, it is argued, should the ISTation, which is only a larger ex- 
pression of the State. 

This question assumes new interest with the growing de- 
mands for industrial education and the increasing mobility of 
labor, since States will, possibly like smaller localities, develop 
increasing reluctance to tax themselves for the support of ex 
pensive forms of industrial education if they see the trained 
men and women, results of that training, drift regularly away 
to other States. 

State Institutions. 

JSTotice must be taken of the fact that many new types of 
education at once make demands upon the State as a whole. 
State universities, normal schools. State schools for dependent, 
delinquent, and defective children, and State industrial schools 
come A^dthin this category. Of necessity the entire State be- 
comes the taxing unit for their support. 

Tendencies. 

Undoubtedly, as the cost of education increases, much of 
the expense will be borne by the larger rather than the smaller 
units. The ISTational government now supports varieties of 
•agricultural and mechanic arts education; it is being asked to 
develop local agricultural schools of a secondary grade, and to 
provide for the training of teachers of agricultural arts and 
science. The actual contributions of the various States in- 
crease, and the development of County control and township 
and consolidated districts means the enlargement of the taxing 
unit. This seems inevitable, in view of these facts: (a) the 
more satisfactory administration of fiscal matters in the larger 
unit; (b) the increasing mobility of populations, causing the 
larger rather than the local units to experience the benefits of 
education ; and (c) the increasing heterogeneousness of the 
community as regards the distribution of wealth, which, cou- 
pled with the growdng tendency to appreciate the obligation of 



64 

the State to oti'er equal educational opportunities to all, makes 
only tJae larger unit feasible. 

But no system whieli fails to put also a premium on ]uirely 
Icx'.al effort will tinally suffice. In many cases it nuiy be that 
responsibility for material equipment of buildings and furni- 
ture and cost of plant maintenance will be sufficient burden; 
but even this the Stat*' will ha,ve the right to bring up to ef- 
fective standards. 

(c) The Basis of the JJisI ribulloit of iStatc Fuiuls k) locali- 
ties and, of c(mnty or township funds to schools has always been 
a ]>roblem of importance. Especially where the relative 
amounts raised by the State and County are large, does it be- 
come of supreme importance to so disburse this as to jn-oduce 
the maximum of educational result. 

We have already seen examples of tiie })rimitive tendency 
to have localities receive back froin tJie State an amount pro- 
portioned to tlie amounts they have paid in taxes. Since this 
takes no account of local educational need, and, in fact, gives 
the largest returns to tlie localities able to raise the largest local 
tax, it has been recognized as out of harmony with the working 
of a true State system of education. 

In the great majority of States it has been replaced by the 
census, or a.verage attendance, or gross attendance, "'basis of 
distribution. The plan of distributing money according to the 
nund)er of children, whether in the area or actually in school, 
has proven fairly a.ceei)t,able except, as has been noted, in the 
case of the varying sized rural districts each of which requires 
one teacher. Various attemjits to adjust this have been made of 
which the California system is probably the most eff'ective. 

But there is a widespread feeling among educators and others 
that tlio State should, use its funds not merely to equalize edu- 
cational o])])ortunities, but also to stimiilate local eff'ort. We 
have already noted that the enrollment basis or the average atr 
tendance basis tends to put a premium on attendance at school, 
as does tlie Florida system of giving additional aid to schools 
nudxing eighty per cent, of average daily attendance. The 
Washington system of distributing money on aggregate attend- 
ance stimulates length of attendance and length of term. But 
all of these affect only ccrtaiu factors of educational well-being. 



65 

From the standijoiiit of the State, educational excellence, as 
found in any eoniniuuitv, is a very couijdex thing. It is made 
up partly of the relative number of children who can be in- 
duced to come to school, and c»f the regularity and persistency 
of tJiat attendance, and of the length of school year maintained. 

Educati oimI Far t o rs. 

But otJier factors enter in: the grade of certiticate held by 
the teacher, the salary paid, the stability of the teacher's po- 
sition, the character of supervision, the number of teachei's in 
relation to the number of pupils, the length of the school day, 
the character of the school building and material equipment, 
the degree to which consolidation and transportation re])lace 
the isolated district, the excellence of the up})er grade work, 
the character of the text-books supplied, and many other ele- 
ments, rurthermoi-e, the j)rogressiveness of the locality in pro- 
viding educational facilities of a modem kind, as instruction 
in agriculture, manual training, domestic work, and the like, 
may seem to deserve not merely recognition but aid. 

State Inspection. 

It would seem that, owing to the many factors which enter 
into the making of an effective school system, and the diiliculty 
of providing for these by genei-al k^gislation, it will prove dif- 
ficult to utilize the distribution of funds as a means of raising 
educational standards, without I he development of a State sys- 
tem of iusi)ection. This, at ])resent, is in its infancy so far 
as our non-urban education is concerned. It may be that be- 
ginnings of inspection, provided in ]\1 assaehusetts. New York, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota (where a provision has lately been 
made for a special inspector of rural schools), indicate further 
dcwelopments in this field. (V'rtainly existing systems of in- 
spection by locally elected officials are insufficient to meet this 
need. Definite legal provisions providing for the encourage- 
ment of local effort soon reach their limit. Fixing the mini- 
mum of taxation to be met before State aid can be rendered, 
or the term of school to be supplied locally, or even the salaries 
and the number of teachers, can only bring pressure to bear 
on the poorest districts and counties. State aid for special fea- 
tures of excellence, as the provision of new forms of education, 



6Q 

the decrease in relative number of pupils per teacher, the in- 
crease in the salaries of teachers, and the provision of super- 
vision can only be effective with close inspection from without. 
To leave the form of distribution to the discretion of officials as 
in townships and some Southern counties, is not possible in 
the larger areas, without systematic and professional inspec- 
tion. 

KEFEREI^CES : 

Black, S. T. The Califoniia System of School Mainten- 
ance, Proc, Iv^. E. A., 1897 :505.— Bowman, H. M. The Ad- 
ministration of Iowa. JSTew York 1903. — Bulfum, H. S. Fed- 
eral and State Aid to Education in Iowa (University of Iowa). 
— Cubberly, E. P. School Funds and Their Apportionment. 
ISTew York, 1905. — Dyke, C. B. The Economic Aspects of 
Teachers' Salaries. Kew York, — Eliot, C. W. More Money 
for the Public Schools. Kew York, 1904.— Elliot, E. C. 
Some Fiscal Aspects of Education. ITew York, 1905. — Fel- 
low, IT. C. A Study of School Supervision and Maintenance. 
Topeka, 1896.— Harris, W. T. The Political Economy of 
School Finances, Ed. Pvov. 29 :486.— Jones, D. R. State Aid 
to Secondarj^ Schools. Berkeley, 1903. — Lane, A. G. Taxa- 
tion aiid Teachers' Salaries, Proc. K E. A. 1902 :323.— Mayo, 
A. D. Original Establishment of Public School Funds. U. S. 
Com. of Ed. Rep. 1891-1895 : 151 3. —Prince, John T. School 
Administration, Appendix D. Syracuse, 1906. — Rawles, W. 
A. Centralizing Tendencies in Indiana. ISTew York, 1903. — 
Rowe, L. S. Educational Finances, Ami. of Am. 14:186. — 
Schaeffer, I^. Taxation for School Purposes, Proc. N. E. A. 
1902:314.— Seaver, Ed. P. Expenditure for Public Schools, 
Ed. Rev. 25:475. — Strayer, Geo. D. City School Expendi- 
ture. ISTew York, 1905, — Swain, J. State Aid to Higher 
Education, Proc. Is^. E. A. 1900 :457.— Webster, W. C. ^Re- 
cent Centralizing Tendencies in Educational Administration. 
'New York, 1897. (See also Ed. Rev. 13:23, 134.) Com. of 
Ed. The Justification of the Public High School, Rep. 
1900:629.— N. E. A. Report of Com. on Taxation as related 
to Public Education. Chicago, 1905. 



67 

MjETHOD OF TAXATION FOR SCHOOL PURPOvSES 
IX IXDIAXA. 

In respect to use, taxes for school purposes in Indiana, are 
of two kinds — tuition school tax and special school tax. The 
former yields a fund that can be used only to pay licensed 
teachers for teaching; the latter for all other purposes for 
which school expenditures are made, including the erection of 
buildings, payment of superintendents of schools, special 
teachers, etc. 

If any considerable sum remains in the special fund at the 
close of the school year it is transferred to the tuition fund. 

If there is a balance in the tuition fund it can not be trans- 
ferred to any other fund, but must be used to pay teachers' 
salaries. The balance may be carried over to the next year, 
but this balance is never large. 

Method of Levying Special School Tax. 

In all towns and in all cities except Indianapolis, the school 
boards, consisting of three members, levy the special tax. In 
amount it varies froin nothing to 50 cents on the $100 of as- 
sessed valuation of property, and not to exceed 25 cents on 
each poll. (The property is usally assessed at about two-thirds 
its actual value. Poll tax is levied on males between the ages 
of twenty-one and fifty.) In townships, the levy is made by 
the to^vnship trustee, and must be approved by the township 
council, which consists of three members. Indianapolis is gov- 
erned by special charter and the school commissioners, five in 
number, levy a certain amomit for all school purposes not to 
exceed 57 cents on the $100, which can be expended for school 
purposes as the commissioners direct. The special tax is al- 
ways expended m the corporation (town or city) in which it 
is levied. 

MiEANs OF Supplementing the Special School Fund. 

There are only three ways of supplementing the amount 
raised by direct taxation for special school purposes : 

(a) Sale of property owned by the school coi-jDoration. 

(b) Temporary loans made by school boards or township 



68 

trustees. Si;ch loans can be made for only small amounts and 
for a short time. The legality of such loans has never been 
passed upon by the supreme court. 

(c) Sale of township, town, or city bonds. Such bonds are 
issued by the township trustee and approA'ed by the township 
council in the case of townships, and by the town trustees or 
by the mayor and common council of cities. In no case are 
school boards authorized to issue bonds. The special funds de- 
rived from tlie sale of such bonds are used for some specific 
purpose — usually the purchase of school sites and the erection 
•and equipment of school buildings. 

Sources of Tuition Revenue. 

There are two sources of revenue that may be used for tui- 
tion purposes — state and local. 

1, State revenues. There are four items that go to make 
up the state school revenue, as follows: 

(a) A school tax of 11 cents on the $100 of taxable ])rop- 
erty of the state. 

(b) Interest on common school fund loans paid by bor- 
roAvers. The constitution of 1851 provided that certiain funds 
and revenues and all fines and forfeitures should go to this 
fund, the principal of which is kept inviolated, the interest 
only being used, for school purposes. This fund is apportioned 
among the different counties and loaned at 6 per cent, interest 
on first mortgages on real estate. 

(c) Interest on the Congressional fund. In 190:3 this 
amounted to $144:,981.53. At the time Indiana was organized 
as a State, Congress appropriated the sixteenth section of land 
in each Congressional township for school pur]3oses. By an 
act of Congress passed in 1828, the State was. authorized to sell 
these lands and to create a, trust fund to be loaned for the 
benefit of the schools. Most of these lands were sold, wdien the 
lands were very cheap. As a result, the Congressional fund 
amounts to only $2,465,983.65. In a very few instances the 
lands have been kept, and now the income is almost sulficient to 
support the schools in those localities. Other States who have 
school lands should see to it that they are kept and j^roperly 
managed for the benefit of the schools. 



69 

(d) A special tax of tliree-eighths of a cent on the $100 for 
the benefit of school corporations which are now nnable to pay 
the minimum wages to teachers and to maintain schools for tlie 
minimum term, six months. 

2. Local tuition. The State funds are inadequate to pay 
teachers' salaries, so the law provides for raising funds locally, 
to supplement those provided by the State, There are four 
different ways in which money is raised locally for tuition pur- 
]Doses, as follows : 

(a) Local tuition tax. This tax varies from nothing to 50 
cents on the $100 of taxable property, and from nothing to 25 
cents on each poll. 

(b) Surplus dog fund. 

(c) Revenue derived from liquor license tax. 

(d) Local tuition. 

Excellency of the Indiana System of School Support. 

The Indiana system of school support is accepted by edu- 
cational experts as one of the very best that has ever been in- 
vented. The fact that the levying of taxes for school purposes 
is intrusted to the school officers who are responsible for the 
management of the schools, and who know most about them, 
is unique and can not easily be improved upon. School sys- 
tem in other States that must depend upon city councils or 
other officers not in touch with the schools to provide support 
for them are decidedly handicapped. If the people elect good 
officers to administer their school affairs they will usually have 
good schools. 



70 



EDUCATION KsT THE HAWAIIAIs^ ISLANDS. 

Brief liistorioal Outline. 

"Although the earlj explorers put forth some eiforts to en- 
lighten the Hawaiian in the learning of the civilized world it 
remained for the missionaries of the Cross to reduce their lan- 
gTi'age to written form and to introduce a system of schools es- 
tablished for the purpose of teaching the common school 
branches as generally understood." 

In 1825, a system of public schools was established in Ha- 
waii and lasted for about ten years. The pupils of the schools 
were adults rather than children and consisted of the big chiefs 
with their immediate attendants. Each chief sent the best 
scholars of his attendants to the lands under his control with an 
order for his tenants to attend school. It is recorded that al- 
most the whole population of both sexes and all ages went to 
school. These primitive schools at the time of their highest 
prosperity reached the number of 900, and were to be found 
in nearly every district of the group. The day was two hours 
long and the teacher was provided with a home, food and cloth- 
ing by the head man of the village. This is a remarkable in- 
stance of a body of despotic rulers (themselves educated) ex- 
erting themselves for the education of their subjects. 

In 1841, the king and his chiefs in council enacted the first 
school laws in the history of the Hawaiian group. These laws 
provided school agents for each island and for the election of 
a school committee who, in consultation with the school agent, 
arranged for the appointment and support of the teacher, and 
construction of school buildings. A general superintendent 
visited each island and inspected the various schools. Attend- 
ance -at school was made compulsory on all children between the 
ages of 4 to 14. 

In 1843, a department of public instruction was organized 
under the charge of a minister of the crown, whose duty it was 
to organize the schools of the islands in accordance with the 
written laws, to instnict the school agents, to hold public ex- 
aminations, to make reports to the Legislature and in every way 



71 

to promote tlie efficiency of the schools. This position was first 
filled by Mr. F. Eichards, at whose death, in 1847, it was con- 
ferred upon Mr. Annstrong. 

In 1855, the department was remodeled and placed under 
the Board of Education, w'hose president had the same duties 
as those formerly imposed upon the Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion. This board regulated all the educational affairs of the 
kingdom. It prescribed the studies used in the schools, it ap- 
pointed the teachers, it expended ' all moneys available from 
legislative appropriations, rents of school lands, interest of 
school funds and other sources. The islands were divided up 
into twenty-three school districts each in charge of a school 
agent who had charge of tlie local school fund of his district; 
upon proper representation the board supplemented the local 
fund from the general fund.. The agent had charge of all 
school property in his district. 

Up to the year 1894, the school tax of each district was ex- 
pended in the districts in Avhich it was collected. After that 
year the law was changed and the school tax was absorbed into 
the general treasury. Up to the time of this change in finan- 
cial management the school agent of each district under bonds, 
. took charge of the school fund of his district. He administered 
the fund under the guidance of the Board of Education. He 
could not s]3end it as he saw fit; he could only spend money 
under authorization. In many cases, in fact in most cases, the 
school tax of the district did not suffice to pay the salaries of 
the teachers in tiat district, and as soon as the tax was ex- 
hausted the general fund for support, of schools voted by the 
liCgislature was drawn ui>on. 

In 1896 — English was made by law the medium of instruc- 
tion in all public schools of Hawaii. 

Since 1900, — The j)owers of the school agent have been grad- 
ually taken away, until the last session of the Legislature failed 
to make any appropriation and thus practically abolished the 
office. At present the duties of the school agent are performed 
by the principals and Commissioner of Education in the re- 
spective districts. 

Under the present organization the counties have the con- 
struction of new buildings, repairs and maintenance of build- 



T2 

ings and grounds, fiiniiturc and fixtures and janitor s('rvi('(^ 
This expenditure is met hy tlie s(»tting a])art of Territorial 
revenue to be expended by the counties. The other expendi- 
tures for the support of schools are met by the Territorial share 
of the revenues. 



73 



HAWAII. 



Public Laxds axd Public Education in Hawaii. 



By an Act passed July 9, 1S50, it was enacted that al;X)ut 
"One-twentieth part of all the lands then helonging- to the Gov- 
ernment should be set apai-t, for the gxnieral purposes of p]dn- 
catKUL" On the 23rd of the following December, cer-tain 
lands and school sites were designated and set 'apart by the 
Privy Council for these purposes. 

At the Privy Council of December 23, 1850, the following- 
liesolution was adopted. Vol. IV, p. 143-."). 

Resolved that in accordance with section first of the late 
School Act to ])rovide for the better sup])ort. and greater effi- 
ciency of the public schools, the following lands be and are 
hereby appropriated for the general purpose of education on the 
Islands, to be disposed of as provided in said Act, viz : 

On the Island of Hawaii. 
Lands. 

Hianaloli 1 Kona Hawaii 

Hianaloli 2 Kona Hawaii 

Auhaukeae Kona Hawaii 

Kahului (whatever remaining) Kona Hawaii 

Kiloanui \ Kona Hawaii 

Kiloa iki / g^jj to Kona Hawaii 

Kauahia V Capt. Kona Hawaii 

Waipunaula 1 . i Cummings. Xona Hawaii 

Waipunanla iki / Kona Hawaii 

Kalarna Kona Hawaii 

Kahuku (sold C. C. II.) Kan Hawaii 

Nanawale Puna Hawaii 

Mokuhonau Hilo Hawaii 

Papaa Hilo Plawaii 

One-half Kauhiula .Hilo Hawaii 

Kauhiula Ililo Hawaii 

Waialaeale (sold to Mr. Parker Hamakua Hawaii 

Puanui (sold tO' Mr. Parker) Hamakua Hawaii 



74 



Waikoloa (sold to Mr. Parker) Hamakua Hawaii 

Puopaha (sold to Mr. Parker) Hamakua Hawaii 

Piiopaha (sold by Lyons) Hamakua Hawaii 

Keaa, first and second Hamakua Hawaii 

Pualoalo '(all sold by Bond) Koliala Hawaii 

Apuakobau Kohala Hawaii 

Kekiki Kohala Hawaii 



Maui. 

Waikapu (whole) Waikapu Maui 

Hamakuapoko Honuaula Maui 

Kahana, first and second Kaanapali Maui 

Mahinahma, first and second Kaanapali Maui 

MOLOKAI. 

Lupehu Kona Molokai 

Onoulimaloo Kona Molokai 

Onouliwai Kona Molokai 

Moanui Kona Molokai 

Manowainui Kalea Molokai 

Kipu Kalea Molokai 

Oahu. 

Twenty-five Kalo patches to be selected from the Fort Lands 
near Honolulu. 

Kapano Koolauloa Oahu 

Waimea Waialua Oahu 

One-half Wahiawa (remainder) Waialua Oahu 

Kauai. 

Koula, Hi no Hanapepe Kona Kauai 

Moloaa, H. A. W. sold Kona Koolau 

Papaa, H. A. W. sold Kona Koolau 

Aliomanu, H. A. W. sold Kona Koolau 

And all lands now occupied by the Go^'ernment Schools and 
known as having been appropriated to their use either by In- 
dividual Chiefs or by the Government. 



75 

By the tJbird section of the above mentioned Act, the Minis- 
ter of Public Instruction was authorized to "dispose by sale, 
lease, or otherwise of any of the lands which have been or here- 
after may be set apart for the general purposes of Education." 

The same authority is given to the Board of Education by 
section 749 of the Civil Code, which was re-enacted in Section 
23rd of the Act approved January 10, 1865, "To regulate the 
Bureau of Public Instruction," (Laws of 1864-65, p. 45). 
Under this authority most of the School lands have been sold 
in the same manner as other Government lands, and Royal 
Patents or "Grants," signed, by the King and countersigned by 
the Minister of the Interior have been issued to the grantee, as 
is expressly provided in the Act approved August 13, 1880, 
The sales of Government lands have always been made by 
metes and bounds, and the original surveys and plans placed 
on file, except in the case of certain Ahupuaas sold by the 
Board of Education, for which Grants by name have been is- 
sued. 

The total number of Grants issued before January 1, 1882, 
was 3,312. 

It may be added here that "All fishing grounds appertain- 
ing to any Government land, or otherwise belonging to the Gov- 
ernment, excepting only ponds," were granted to the people for 
the free and equal use of all persons," May 15, 1851. (Laws of 
]851, p, 23.) The same privilege is confirmed by Section 384 
of the Civil Code. 

Hawaii School Eevenue — 1850-1896. 

Besides the school tax and tuition fees, there was set apart 
for educational purposes in 1850 one-twentieth of all the gov- 
ernment lands not appropriated at that time and the Minister 
of Public Instruction was authorized to "dispose by sale, lease, 
or otherwise, of any of the lands which have been or hereafter 
may be set apart for the general purposes of Education." And 
the fund thus created gradually increased as shown below : 



76 

1852 amount realized was $ 6,813.75 

1853 amount increased to 10,839.26 

1855 amount increased to 19,147.04 

1858 'amount increased to 32,511.00 

1860 amount increased to 35,040.51 

1862 amount decreased to *26,634.85 

1866 amount increased to 26,732.38 

1868 amount increased tO' 29,379.38 

1876 amount increased to 44,600.00 

1884 amount decreased to 37,100.00 

1888 amount increased to 46,100.00 

1897 amount decreased to 14,100.00 

*(Land sold reclaimed.) 

(By Act 22 and 23 of Aug. 12, 1895, the Legislature au- 
thorized the delivery and cancellation of $32,000 in Hawaiian 
Government Bonds for purchase of Keaua Hale.) 



77 

Point of View of Hawaiian Commissioners on Education 
OF Aliens. — 1890. 

During the period, several important matters touehing- gen- 
eral policies and principles of the Department have been un- 
der discussion, with the result that they have been more clearly 
defined. 

First in importance among these fundamental pnnciples is 
that all classes, whether citizen or alien, are entitled, without 
condition, ecpaally and alike to the benefits of state education : 
a principle that contemplates a single system of schools, with 
equal privileges, open and accessible to all. 

The fairness of this principle depends naturally upon its 
acce]>tability in the community, that is, upon an equal capac- 
ity in all for its enjoyment. As yet it can not be said to be 
generally acceptable. Such obstacles exist as the antipathy be- 
tween nationalities and the inbred experience of the dominant 
race, obstacles which may be grouped under the head of lack 
of disposition to allow the general application of the principle. 
Other obstacles exist which may be ascribed, to present condi- 
tions, such as the heterogeneous character of the population, 
and the differences of languages. 

The general application of the principle is becoming, how- 
ever, more and more acceptable in both senses of the word. In 
the future it is to be hoped that those obstacles which arise from 
lack of disposition may be steadily set aside and those obstacles 
arising from present conditions nuiy become constantly dimin- 
ishing necessities. 

Consistently with this policy the following action was taken 
on Thursday, May 18, 1899, in regard to tuition fees in Select 
Schools. * * * * 

The removal of the fee has not in any manner affected the 
standard or character of the select schools. The educational 
system of these Islands has benefited thereby. All our schools 
are now free public schools. 

The necessity of nationalizing the diverse components of our 
community through the medium of our schools has also found 
exju'ession during the period. English was made by law in 
1896 the medium of instruction in all ffovemment schools; 



78 

and as a furtlier factor in the application of this principle, 
Vhich is of vital interest to the State as well as to the cause of 
education, English during the present period has been recog- 
nized as a measaire of qualification in promotion. 

The solution of this problem of nationalization has been sug- 
gested in the expedient of educating a part of our alien popu- 
lation, the part most amenable to education to act as a barrier 
against the rest. The tendency arises, however, to make this a 
policy and not a part of a policy ; not a means to an end, but 
the end itself. 

Good govemmient policy dictates the gene7nl education of all 
classes, and more particularly those classes most in need of edu- 
cation. 

All classes should he brought to an equal realization of their 
duties to each other and to the State. The State is Anglo-Sax- 
on and its institutions must be Anglo-Saxon all through. 

As has been well stated by JVIr. Dressier, the security of the 
State is to he found in the intermingling of children in the 
schools common to all. 

The attitude of the Commissioners on this question was 
clearly defined in their refusal of an application to allow cer- 
tain Japanese children to be dismissed from the public schools 
two hours before closing in order that such children might at- 
tend a Japanese school. The application was refused on a 
technicality, but the discussion brought out and defined the 
policy. 



79 

*THE DAVIS BILL. 

The following is tlie speech of the Hon. Charles R. Davis, 
Kepresentative from Minnesota, in which he outlines the dif- 
ferent provisions of the Davis Bill : 

TECH^^ICAL SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRL 
CULTURE, MECHANIC ARTS, AND HOME ECO- 
NOMICS. 

SPEECH 
of 
HON. CHARLES R. DAVIS 
of Minnesota, 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 

Saturday, March 2, 1907. 

Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill. 

Mr. DAVIS of Minnesota. Mr. Speaker, I have intro- 
duced, during this session of Congress, a certain bill which I 
deem, if enacted into law, one of the greatest importance to 
all of the people of the United States, and I feel confident that 
when its provisions are fully miderstood by the Congress it 
will almost unanimously meet its approval. During this short 
session, owing to the vast amount of other business which has 
engrossed attention, little opportunity has been given for con- 
sideration of this measure ; and my purpose at this time in ad- 
dressing myself, as I shall, to the provisions of this bill is that 
the Congress and the country at large may in tlie interim con- 
sider it and be prepared to place a just estimate upon it, and 
that we may, during the first session of the Sixtieth Congress, 
act accordingly. The bill as introduced is known as H. R. 
24575, and entitled "A bill to^ provide an annual appropriation 
for industrial education in agricultural high schools and in 
city high schools and for branch agricultural experiment sta- 
tions, and regulating the expenditures thereof." Specifically 
its language is as follows : 

* This has lately been somewhat amended and is now known 
as the Dolliver-Davis Bill. 



80 

Be it enacted, etc., That there shall be, and hereby is, an- 
nually a])])r()])riate<l, ont of any money in tlie 'I'reasnry not 
otherwise ajipropriated, to be paid, as hereinafter i)rovided, 
to each State and Territory for the maintenance of instniction 
in agricnlture and home economics in agricultnral high schools 
of secondary grade and instrnction in mechanic arts and home 
economics in city high schools of secondary grade, 'a sum of 
money eqnal to 10 cents per capita of the population of each 
State and Territory, respectively, as shown by the last ])reced- 
ing national or State census, as shall be ap})ortioned by the Sec- 
i'etary of Agricnlt,nre and estimated, for in the annual estimates 
submitted to Congress for the Department of Agriculture: 
Provided, That the funds thus appropriated shall be used for 
instruction in agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics, 
and that all States and Territories and all schools 'accepting 
these funds shall provide other funds with which to ]iay the 
cost of providing the necessary lands and, buildings and of in- 
strnction in all general st,udies recpiired to make w(dl-rounded 
high school courses of study : And ])rovid(Hl fnrther, ^Fhat not 
less than one-half of the sum thus appropriated to any State or 
Territory shall be expended for instruction in agricnlture and 
home economics in agricultural high schools maintained under 
State anthority in rural communities, and, the number of such 
agricultural high schools which shall he entitled to receive the 
Ixnietits of this act in any one State or Territory shall not, ex- 
ceed one school for each ten connties in that State or Terri- 
tory. 

Sec. 2. That there shall be, and hereby is, annually appro- 
])riat,ed, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise ap- 
j)ropriated, to be ])aid, as hereinafter provided, to each State 
and Territory for the maintenance of branch agricultural ex- 
periment stations under the direction of the State agricultural 
experiment stations now established or which may hereafter 
be established in accordance with the act of Congress approved 
March 7, 1862, the sum of $2,500 for each branch experiment 
station already estahlished by legislative enactment of the re- 
spective States and Territories, or which shall ho (^stal)lished 
by said States or Territories in connection with agricultural 
high schools as appropriated for by this act: Provided, That 
no State or Tenitorv shall be entith^d to the benefits of section 



81 

2 of this act until its legislature shall by law provide for the 
establishment of such branch stations and shall provide an- 
nually for the equipment and maintenance of such branch sta- 
tions a sum at least equivalent to that appropriated annually 
to tihe State or Territory under section 2 of this act; and the 
sum paid to each State or Territory under section 2 of this act 
shall be applied only to paying the necessary expenses of con- 
ducting at such branch experiment stations ex})eriments bear- 
ing directJy upon the agricultural industry of the United 
States, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs 
of the respective States or Territories and the respective agri- 
cultural regions therein. 

Sec. 3. That the sums hereby appropriated to the States 
and Territories for the maintenance of branch agricultural 
experiment stations and for instruction in agriculture, me- 
chanic arts, and, home economics shall be annually jjaid, one- 
half on the 1st day of July of each year and one-half on the 
1st day of January of each year, by the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, upon the warrant of the Secretary of Agriculture, out of 
the Tr(uisury of the United States, to the treasurer or other 
officer duly appointed by the governing boards of said experi- 
ment stations and schools to receive the same, and such officers 
shall be required to report to the Secretary of Agriculture on 
or before the 1st day of September of each year a detailed 
statment of the amounts so received during the previous year 
and of its disbursement on schedules prepared by the Secretary 
of Agriculture. The grants of money authorized by this act 
are made subject to legislative assent of the several States and 
Territories to the purpose of said grants. 

Sec. 4. That if any portion of these moneys received by 
the designated officers of any State or Territory for the main- 
tenance of instruction in agriculture, mechanic arts, and home 
economics or for the maintenance of branch experiment sta- 
tions as provided in this act shall by any action or contingency 
be dismissed or lost or be misapplied, it shall be replaced by 
said State or Territory concerned, and until so replaced no 
subsequent appropriation shall be apportioned or paid to such 
State or Territory : Provided, That no portion of said moneys 
shall be applied directly or indirectly under any pretense what- 



82 

ever to tiie purchase or erection of any building ov buildings or 
to the purchase or rental of lands. 

Sec. 5. That it shall be the duty of each of said city hig-'h 
schools, agricultural high schools, and branch experiment sta- 
tions annually, on or before the 1st day of February, to make 
to the governor of the State or Territory in which it is lo- 
cated a full and detailed report of its operations, including a 
statement of receipts and expenditures, a copy of which report 
shall be sent to each of said agricultural high schools, city high 
schools, and branch experiment stations, to the Secretary of 
Agriculture, and to the Secretary of the Treasury of the Unit- 
ed States, said reports to be made on blanks to be supplied by 
the Secretary of Agriculture. 

Sec. 6. That on or before the 1st day of July in each year 
after the passage of this act the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
certify to the Secretary of the Treasury as to each State and 
Territory whether it has complied with the provisions of this 
act and is entitled to receive its share of the allotment herein 
provided for branch experiment stations, for agricultural high 
schools, and for city high schools under this act and the amount 
thereupon which it is entitled to receive. If the Secretary of 
Agriculture shall withhold a certificate from any State or Ter- 
ritory for the whole or part of its appropriation, the facts and 
reasons therefor shall be reported to the President and the 
amount involved shall be kept separately in the Treasury un- 
til the close of the next Congress in order that the State or 
Territory may, if it shall so desire, appeal to Congress from 
the determination of the Secretary of Agriculture. . If the next 
Congress shall not direct such sum to be paid; it shall be cov- 
ered into the Treasury, and the Secretary of Agriculture is 
hereby charged with the proper administration of this law. 

Sec. 7. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make an 
annual report to Congress on the receipts and expenditures and 
on the work of the agricultural high schools, city high schools, 
and branch agricultural experiment stations in all of the States 
and Territories to which allotments are made, and also whether 
the appropriation of any State or Territory has been withheld, 
and, if so, the reasons therefor. 



. 83 

Sec. 8. That Congress may at any time amend, suspend, or 
repeal any or all the provisions of this act. 

A Federal appropriation is sought for the purpose of en- 
couraging the several States and Territories in the promotion 
of industrial and agricultural education, and with their co- 
operation. It is mainly for the purpose of encouraging a type 
of education for the mass of our people that v^ill train them 
for the practical affairs of life; and while the Morrill Act of 
1862 has undoubtedly stimulated great activity along this line, 
the present measure supplants it and. to a large extent will con- 
summate the purpose desired. The science of agriculture is 
basic in principle, and sooner or later we should return to first 
princii^les, and in the last analysis we must recur to the soil 
as the fundamental source of our wealth, prosperity, and hap- 
piness as a people. The practical training to he obtained, if 
this bill becomes a law, for the young men and women on the 
farm will undoubtedly make country life more attractive and 
beneficial, and the industrial training sought to be encouraged 
in city schools add very materially to the prosperity and hap- 
piness of all those who will avail themselves of the opportuni- 
ties thus provided. The measure therefore responds to the 
needs of both rural and city conditions. 

This bill is designed especially to secure simple justice to 
the workers and home makers of our country. We have too 
long confined technical education to the professional classes. 
Let us carry out the wise plan by Congress in 1862— the land- 
grant act establishing colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts 
— and provide, along with general schooling, industrial educa- 
tion, not only to the privileged 5 per cent., but also to the 95 
per cent, who 'are doing the world's work. 

The increase of knowledge, the specialization of industries, 
and the close division of labor have made a new world, into 
which the graduates of our schools are precipitated. The old 
education leads the pupil to believe that he is prepared for life. 
His preparation is only general. The new education must pre- 
pare the pupil for some specific line of life. It must be both 
broad and practical. It must combine the theme written in the 
book, the theme written in the soil and in the machinery, with 
the inspiration for the best living which modern conditions 
can provide. 



84 

The CongTess of the United States aud other legislative bod- 
ies in the world ere long will have spent more than $100,000,- 
000 in agricultural research. Along other lines much greater 
sums are being expended in university laboratories, in labora- 
tories supported by our great industrial organizations, and in 
private laboratories devoted to research and inventions. The 
utility results of science have gained recognition in agricul- 
ture, in the non-agricultural industries, and in home making. 
The much enlarged body of knowledge rapidly becoming avail- 
able in all vocations has made necessary such organization of 
our school system that the rising generation may have the key 
to this new knowledge. The old forms of education, which 
have so wonderfully aided in bringing forward our civiliza- 
tion, must be rearranged, that the curriculum of our schools 
may be broadened and enriched with this rapidly accummulat- 
ing new knowledge. 

V7e shall soon have about 90,000,000 of people in this coun- 
try, one-third of whom, or oO, 000,000, will be of school age — 
between 5 and 20 years — and entitled to school privileges. The 
Twelfth Census, using round numbers, showed that one-half 
the persons of school age attended school in 1900, and thus we 
may calculate that we shall soon have 15,000,000 pupils in 
schools. Since practically one-third of our population is en- 
gaged in agriculture and two-thirds in nonagricultural pursuits, 
we may roughly say that we shall have 5,000,000 pupils pre- 
paring for country life and 10,000,000 preparing for city life. 
Since three teachers are required for each 100 pupils, we shall 
need 150,000 teachers in country-life education and 300,000 
teachers for schools leading to city life, or a total of 450,000 
teachers. With the material increase in the numbers of pu- 
pils taking secondary and higher courses of study, we may hope 
to have 7 per cent, of American youth entering high school of 
secondary grade, and of these 2 per cent, entering higher in- 
stitutions of collegiate grade; but the great educational problem 
will remain — the training of the 93 per cent, who will stop 
with the primary city school and the primary rural school. As 
our schools are improved in their general educational work and 
m their efficiency to aid the pupil to make a good living, we 
may expect to increase the proportion of children attending 
school. Since the teachers in the primary schools are mainly 



85 

trained for their work in the secondary schools, the most im- 
portant means for improving the primary schools is better to 
provide for the preparation of their teachers. Our high schools 
have three important functions, viz: (1) To give to a large 
number of people a better education that individually their 
success may be greater; (2) to place among the people of the 
country a large number of trained workers whose success, ex- 
ample, and help will enable all people with whom they asso- 
ciate to become more efficient and more successful, and (3) to 
prepare the necessary teachers to conduct the primary schools 
in the most efficient manner possible. 

Our educators, farmers, professional, and business classes 
are of one mind in a desire that the evolution of our school sys- 
tem shall be directed into lines which shall carry to all the peo- 
ple our accumulating technical knowledge and thus add effici- 
ency to our workers. When our population reaches 90,000,000, 
we shall have engaged in gainful occupations 33,000,000 of 
people. Of the latter at least 30,000,000 Vvill be interested in 
agriculture and mechanic arts education and at least another 
25,000,000 in home economics education. At $1 a day the 
industrial and home-making value of these 55,000,000 people, 
counting 300 days as a year, is $16,500,000,000. It would 
seem easy by sharply turning our school system somewhat more 
toward technical instruction to increase the economic efficiency 
of our workers 1 per cent., or $165,000,000 annually. This bill 
proposes to devote $8,000,000 to this purpose. 

In 1862, the Congress of the United States ventured upon 
an experiment by providing for the establishment in each State 
of a college devoted to agriculture and the mechanic arts. Out 
of this action has grown not a theory, but a condition. The 
situation demands that we utilize the results of these experi- 
ments and the new knowledge thus secured. The knowledge 
is of more value than any dozen mechanical inventions ever de- 
vised. Our American educational machine must be so evolved 
and, even reorganized as tO' reach every industry and every 
home in the land. This bill undertakes to point the way and 
to provide the funds with which to accomplish this purpose. 
The undertaking is too important to be left to sporadic action, 
and is too expensive tO' be inaugurated systematically through- 
out the United States under any auspices less able to provide 



86 

funds and to secure co-operative action than the Federal gov- 
ernment. 

We now have over fifty State colleges of agriculture and me- 
chanic arts. Their past growth warrants tlie hope that before 
long thej may have an average of 1,000 students each in col- 
legiate courses related to industry, 500 in mechanic arts 
courses, 300 in agriculture, and 200 in home economics, or a 
total of 50,000 students, where there are now 20,000. 

Minnesota, Nebraska, Alabama, Georgia, and other States 
have demonstrated that the industrial education started in our 
State colleges should be extended into a system of agricultural 
high schools and into our city high schools. The trend has 
been to organize an agricultural high school for each group of 
about ten counties, as has been done in Alabama and Georgia, 
and to develop mechanic arts education, both in separate city 
high schools and as courses of study in general city high 
schools. Minnesota and Nebraska led in devising and develop- 
ing schools of agriculture of high school grade articulating 
with the college above, and with both the rural schools and the 
farms below. Alabama and Georgia have recently taken the 
lead in establishing one of these schools in each Congressional 
district. Minnesota and ISTebraska have agricultural high 
schools with 600 and 300 students, respectively. The gradu- 
ates of these schools nearly all go back tO' the farm. A very 
small number go into other vocations, and probably 10 per 
cent, go forward into collegiate courses in agriculture, most of 
them to become agricultural technicians. These schools have 
demonstrated so effectively that farm boys and girls can be 
educated for country life and returned to country life that 
everyone who looks into the work of these institutions is ready 
to promote this kind of schools for the entire country. 

To Georgia belongs the credit and honor of first taking the 
step thoroughly to establish a sufficient number of well-equip- 
ped agricultural high schools to meet the needs of the farm 
boysi and farm girls of the State. Last July the Georgia legis- 
lature authorized Governor Terrell to establish an agricultural 
high school in each of Georgia's eleven Congressional districts. 
A State appropriation of $6,000 was provided annually as a 
current expense fund with which to begin each school. The 
districts securing these schools were required to provide at 



87 

least 200 acres of land and to erect buildings aiid equip the 
schools. The different localities sought to secure the location 
of these schools. The result was such that it is inspiring the 
entire country with an interest and faith in high school edu- 
cation in agriculture and home economics. By private sub- 
scription GeoTgia has raised $800,000 with which to establish 
and equip these eleven schools. Never before have the Ameri- 
can people so emphatically expressed their faith in agricultural 
education. In no way has the South better expressed the fact 
that she is rising from the difficulties and depression which re- 
sulted from tJie civil war. 

The passage of this bill will precipitate a similar movement 
in every State in the Union. If all of the States will follow 
Georgia's example, we shall have 300 agi-icultural high schools 
for our 3,000 agricultural counties. With each of these schools 
averaging 500 students we would have a total of 150,000 stu- 
dents in agricultural high schools, an average of 3,000 in each 
State. This number of students would provide a large num- 
ber of men technically trained in agriculture to become leading 
farmers, and a large number of young women trained in home 
economics to develop exemplary farm homes. It would also 
provide a body of yoimg people who could rapidly be developed 
into teachers who could carry instruction and inspiration in 
agriculture and home building into all the rural schools of the 
land and thus carry this edncation to all farm youth. There 
may be a difference of opinion as to whether we shall make our 
rural schools more efficient by retaining the present unit — the 
isolated rural school — or whether we should consolidate these 
into larger units. Which ever plan is pursued, all must agree 
that this class of schools must be improved by providing teach- 
ers trained bot]^ in general studies and in the subjects relating 
to the future life work of that 85 per cent of rural youth which 
will remain in country life. It may be presmned that the ex- 
pense will not be very greatly different whether we develop the 
rural schools under a plan of consolidation or by adequately 
improving the little rural schools. At present, we have no body 
of people in our rural communities who have either knowledge 
or faith to reorganize our country schools. Probably the chief 
function of the provisions of this bill will be to provide a large 
class of leaders in our rural communities who, as progressive 



88 

farmers .and lionie makers and as rural school-teachers, will 
press to a successful issue the development of our rural pri- 
mary school system. 

The State colleg'es of agriculture 'and mechanic arts estab- 
lished by the Congress have developed mechanic arts education 
even much more rapidly than agricultural education. The en- 
gineering courses of these colleges have been very successful 
and popular from the start, and this class of instruction has 
extended, into numerous city high schools, as in the mechanic 
•arts high school of St. Paul, Pittsburg, Philadelphia, and 
Washing-ton. The graduates of these colleges and high schools 
have profoundly modified our mechanical and transportation 
industries. Our manufacturing and transportation companies 
are in touch with these local mechanic arts high schools and with 
these State colleges and are offering good positions to eveiy 
young man wdio shows technical instincts and ability. Gradu- 
ates of these mechanic arts high schools in turn have carried 
the elements of this line of instruction under the name of ^'man- 
ual training" into very many of the primary city schools of 
the counti'y. Most of these mechanic arts high schools are as 
yet relatively small because of the difficulty of seciiring local 
appropriations sufficient to pay the larger expenses of these 
more practical studies which require laboratories and shop 
practice as well 'as class-room instruction. This bill is designed 
to meet this difficulty. Our State colleges were more tardy 
in developing education in home economies than in either me- 
chanic arts or agriculture, but even in this line it may be said 
that the Congressional act of 1862 has developed a revolution 
in education in domestic economy. Many of the State colleges 
having successfully organized instruction in domestic-science 
subjects have provided teachers who have successfully intro- 
duced this line of education into city high schools, agricultural 
high schools, and into a large proportion of tlie colleges and 
academies attended by women, and even into city primary 
schools and into soane rural scliools. It is found that this line 
of technical education is relatively inexpensive and yet very 
important for the future home nuikers. 

Under the movement for industrial education and research 
started in the 'sixties, including the Federal Department of 
Agricultui-e, tlie State ex]i)eriment stations, the State agricul- 



89 

tural colleges, and the two oi^ three dozen agricultural high 
schools, we now sj^end, exclusive of inspection and other gen- 
eral work, something like $10,000,000. These expenditures 
have added not less than a billion dollars in value to the pro- 
ducts of our American farms, shops, and other industries, and 
greatly improved the social conditions of our workers and of 
all our people. Thus for the price of one battleship there is 
created sufficient additional wealth to pay two ov three times 
over our direct and indirect expenses incident to war. 

I maintain that we should have a properly equipped Army 
and iSTavy that we may have stability and peace for our indus- 
tries ; but, on the other hand, those who advocate large exjien- 
ditures for the Army or for the Navy should be the first to see 
the importance of expenditures which create individual effici- 
ency 'and wealth. Now that our national wealth has reached 
nearly $100,000,000,000, our annual production nearly $30,- 
000,()00,0()0, and our Federal appropriations nearly $1,000,- 
000,000, are we not ready seriously to consider the proposition 
of making it possible for every boy and girl in the entire coun- 
try to secure at least the rudiments of technical industrial edu- 
cation '( The relatively small cost is clearly within the scope 
of our public financial ability. 

Of the three great wastes in the economics — land, material, 
and labor — by far the greatest waste is from inefficient labor. 
It has been truthfully said that wliile America wastes land 
the Old World wastes labor. In America laibor commands $1 
to $2 a day ; in Europe one-fourth of tliat amount, and in the 
Orient one-tenth of that amount. The greatest economic need 
is that our industries be so changed that labor be not wasted. 
The recent wonderful and far-reaching developments m trans- 
jDortation of all kinds is suddenly bringing together, in close 
economic competition, all the people of the entire world. The 
nation that uses its labor, lands, and i)roducts to the best ad- 
vantage will take the lead in civilization and in power. 

Can America afford to continue the kind of education 
which cultivates tastes too expensive for the earning capacities 
of her people, while other peoples are willing to labor cheaply 
and live within their means ? Even more than with boys we 
are making the mistake of educating the tastes of our girls 
more rapidly than we are training them in the ability to secure 



90 

those tltings which satisfy their tastes. Our most important 
racial and national institution — the home — can be developed 
along witJi our other institutions only as we give to it the dis- 
coveries of science and build, it up through education. It is 
not enough that America has homes averaging better than 
homes of other parts of the world ; they should be very much 
better. The leadership assumed by Congress in 1862 brought 
with it responsibilities. These responsibilities may now be 
clearly seen. There is only one organized body competent to 
deal witb. the question of the rapid development of technical 
education for the w^orkers in the industries throughout all of 
the States, and that is this Congress. 

This bill provides for the inauguration of a movement in 
industrial education second only in importance to the original 
bill of 18G2 creating in America this class of education. It 
provides for introducing throughout all our public schools of 
a secondary or high school grade education in mechanic arts, 
agriculture, and home economics. The sum it is proposed to 
appropriate is less than 1 per cent of the revenues of the Gov- 
ernment, and is based upon an appropriation tO' the various 
States and cities of 10 cent per capita of the inhabitants there- 
of provided that a like sum is raised by them. This means 
practically appropriating for the indnstrial education of each 
pupil of school age 30 cents per annum, or for each jiupil ac- 
tually in school 60 cents per annum. 

The bill provides that the money allotted to each State shall 
be e(piitably divided betiween the city people and the country 
people. Each city will receive 10 cents per capita on its popu- 
lation at the last national or State census. The money thus 
•allotted to the respective States and not apportioned to city 
high schools wall be available for use toward the maintenance 
of one agricultural high school in each rural Congressional dis- 
trict, or its equivalent. Thus, my own State of Minnesota^ 
with a population of about 2,000,000, half of whom are in citr 
ies, will receive $200,000 annually, $100,000 to be apportioned 
to the respective cities according to their population and $100,- 
000 to be used in eight or ten agricultural high schools dis- 
tributed, throughout the State. Under this bill thousands 
would be provided with industrial and agricultural education 



01 

where now hundreds receive this kind of instruction in the one 
or two schools of each class now in operation. 

The course of study in agricviltural high schools and me- 
chanic arts high schools, having now been under trial and de- 
velopment for nearly twenty years, has been nearly as well 
worked out as the general courses of study in our city high 
schools, and are also successfully articulated with the rural 
school and the primary city school below and with the college 
courses above. Passing the land-grant act of 1862 was an ex- 
periment, because no argicultural or mechanical college had 
then been sruccessfully started. The passage of this measure 
would not be an experiment, because agricultural high schools 
and mechanic arts high schools, both including industrial work 
for women in relation to the home, are recognized as among our 
most successful institutions. It is believed by those well in- 
formed that every dollar appropriated for the Federal Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and for the State experiment stations and 
State college returns to the American people, or rather earns 
for the American people, at least $20. There is no reason why 
the appropriations under this act shall be less productive. 

The farmers of America have rapidly changed from an in- 
ditferent attitude toward so-called ''book farming" to a high 
appreciation of and a profound respect for agricultural sci- 
ence and institutions devoted to improving agriculture. Edu- 
cation in mechanics and home economics has likewise risen to 
a plane of high appreciation. It requires no prophet to pre- 
dict that within ten years after the passage of a law as out- 
lined in this bill the entire point of view recently held by the 
farmers of this country toward agricultural schools and by the 
practical men of affairs toward city liigh school education will 
have been changed. 

The feverish desire to leave the land and go to the city will 
have been removed. Farms a,s places of business and farm 
homes as places to develop splendid families will be appreci- 
ated at their tiiie American value. With the great Federal 
Department of Agriculture, with fifty State agriculture col- 
leges and experiment stations, with two or three hundred agri- 
cultural high schools and branch experiment stations, and with 
tens of thousands of improved consolidated rural schools and 
with other educational machinery as college-extension work, 



92 

and with highly developed agricultural literature, and with a 
like equipment for education in city industries, the American 
people will be so informed and inspired in industrial affairs 
and home making tliat we shall have a new j;\jnerica. The 
pivotal place in turning tlie education of our workers, whether 
in country or city, more towards the things with which they 
must deal is in tJie high school, because here the teachers for 
]irimary schools are trained in those subjects in which they are 
to instruct the primary pupils. 

The provision in this bill which appropriates $2,500 to be 
placed with an additional amount to be supplied by the re- 
s]iective States for branch experiment stations for each agTi- 
eultural high school is important from two standpoints. It is 
necessary that the teachers of agriculture, horticulture, live 
stock, and dairying in these agricultural high schools have as 
]iart of their instructional machinery actual farm operations 
and such research work as the State experiment stations and 
the Federal Department of Agriculture may properly delegate 
to these institutions. The working out of crop rotations and 
farm plans, the testing of commercial fertilizers, the testing 
and breeding of plants, the demonstrating of methods of de- 
stroying insects, and m^any other similar lines will have a large 
value, both as part of tlie school education and as a means of 
working out improvements in agricultiu'e. 

The question is often asked. Why should tbe Federal Gov- 
ernment take up the burden of the State ? Will not the use of 
Federal money tend, to retard activity along educational lines 
in the States and cause them to depend on Federal aid 'I Is 
Congress not already doing too much for the people of the 
States i Congress, and, especially the State legislatures, have 
not taken full cognizance of the fact tiiat the Federal Govern- 
ment raises and expends more than three times as much money 
as do all of the State governments combined. The fact that 
the Federal Government has the indirect, and therefore easy, 
methods of raising taxes, while the States have the direct and 
more difficult methods of raising taxes is the best of reasons 
why the Federal Government should lead general co-operative 
movements in bringing about im^wrtant changes affecting the 
entire length and breadth of the country. Congress, with 
$800,000,000, offering to co-operate with the States with their 



93 

aggregate of $200,000,000, will help the States so to increase 
their "$200,000,000 that thev will ha.ve means with which to 
improve their secondary and primary schools, tasks which now 
seem so large as tO' well-nigh paralyze effort in many States. Ma- 
terial Federal aid will greatly encourage and inspire State and 
local efforts. If this bill is passed, and the States duplicate 
the amount of money thus appropriated, American education 
can be put upon a new plane in every State in the Union. 
Georgia's experience shows that the States are willing to sup- 
ply the equipment and part of the current-expense fund. Let 
the Federal Government meet Georgia half way, and evei-y 
State will follow the noble example set by that vigorous Com- 
monwealth. 

Does not this plan of using some of our immense national 
funds with which to build up local institutions decentralize 
rather than increase the tendency to centralization ? How can 
we better strengthen the States than by turning over to State 
management funds with which to strengthen their educational 
institutions, around which local interest and local pride cen- 
ter^ 

This bill does not establish a new precedent in princij^le, be- 
cause it simply carries out the precedent established in our 
country in organizing State colleges of agriculture and me- 
chanic arts in 1862. The British Government several years 
ago, from their large income from taxes, passed an almost iden- 
tical act, thus building up local institutions. Under that act 
technical education, for the most part secondary in grade, has 
been supplied to tlie people of the cities of the British Islands, 
and numerous agricultural high schools have been organized in 
individual counties or by groups of counties. Through the leg- 
islation provided in PL E. 24757 America will not only keep 
pace with the most jorogressive nations, but will be in a po- 
sition to take the lead in industrial education for the masses. 

We need to build up a class of people educated in distinct- 
ive industrial and agricultural schools, highly organized, so 
as to give instruction and tO' inculcate pride in industrial af- 
fairs and in the American home. So long as tJie teachers of 
our schools are trained in schools devoted mainly to nonin- 
dustrial interests they can not well build up an industrial com- 
munity with full knowledge and inspiration for their life 



94 

work. Let ii,s lia.ve as a dominating force in the education of 
our country youth and our city youth teachers who are chosen 
as trained leaders in building up rural and industrial science 
and practice and in home making. 

There is encouragement in the fact that year by year the 
strong men of the world's legislative bodies are joining the 
ranks of those who favor larger appropriations for research 
and education related to the industries. The time has arrived 
in many States when the farming interests demand that legis- 
lative bodies counteract the tendency to pile up the largest 
part of our annual increase of permanent wealth in our largest 
cities. Labor too, under wise leadership, is ready to demand 
more of the fruits of science and art in the form of technical 
training for their children. 

The proposition in this bill at first seems radical. When 
carefully considered it is not as radical as the proposition to 
build new battleships. It is a plan of investing money in the 
higher industrial efficiency of the nation's 60,000,000 workers 
and in the better living of all people of all classes. It pro- 
poses that we give our workers a square deal by giving them 
a chance to secure technical training, as we now provide tech- 
nical training for the professional classes. It looks to uni- 
versal technical education. This kind of education is not a 
net expense. It is a net profit. It is an expenditure such as 
we make in business, only here the economic return plus the 
social benefit is greater than the expected profits in business. 
This plan is not an experiment. It will bring the results. E"o 
other solution has been offered to the problem of bringing to 
a free people the results accruing from their own expenditures 
in scientific research. If another plan superior tO' this can be 
devised, let us adopt it, and, failing in that, let us perfect and 
utilize the plan outlined in this bill. 

(Taken from the Congressional Kecord, Fifty-ninth Con- 
gress, Second Session.) 



95 



OUR CHILDREN, OUR SCHOOLS, AND OUR INDUS- 
TRIES. 

(Andrew S. Draper, Superintendent of Public Instniction, 
New York State.) 

It is putting it not a wliit too strongly to say that it is quite 
•apparent to all who think about it that provision must be made 
for public vocation or trades schools, and also for schools of a 
general character which meet the continuing needs of young 
people m the stores and shops and factories; that these schools 
for the industrial m^asses must operate at times which will al- 
low pupils to engage in regular employment, but employers 
must plan for the regular attendance of young employees upon 
the schools at certain hours ; that the schools must keep hold of 
all pupils until they have received a training which will fit them 
for some definite employment; and that the different parts of 
a more extended school system must balance each other more 
exactly and support the industrial as well as the professional ac- 
tivities of the country. 

The recognition of the need of all this grows out of manifest 
moral, industrial, and economic conditions that are widely 
prevalent among us, and out of a growing knowledge of what 
other peoples, harder pressed and more painstaking than we, 
have done to meet the conditions which are now" asserting them- 
selves here. It grows out of our clearing vision that simple and 
balanced justice, as well as the progTcss and happiness of the 
people, and the strength and poise of the nation, alike make it 
necessary to give to the wage earning masses, and tO' the com- 
mon industries, such equivalent as we can for what the present 
schools are doing for the wealthier classes and for the profes- 
sional and managing vocations. 

The recognition of the need is opening the door to a decisive 
educational advance in America; and the time seems ripe for 
a review of the reasons for it and for a serious discussion of the 
plans and arrangements for it. 



96 
I.ooKiXG Backward. 

In the begiiiiiin^- there was no thoiig'ht that the common 
schools slionhl do more than teach the ''three U's," the mere 
elements, which would enable one to gain the knowledge vital 
to citizenship. Farming was the very general employment. 
Many of the trades were followed on the farm. Thcn'e was no 
thought of leaving the farm. Boys were happy in the thought 
of having a farm and following their fathers from whom they 
learned the business of farming. In the towns there was a sys- 
tem of apprenticeship by which the boys were bound out to 
tradesmen and artisans for a. term of years to give service in 
return for instruction in a trade. There was no employment, 
and little schooling, for girls outside of the home. The girls 
in every home were made ex})ert in the household arts by their 
mothers and by the ordinary needs of the home, and they were 
not unhappy about it. Few boys and no girls went to college. 
The college was the instrument of the relatively rich, and pro- 
vided rather exclusive instruction in the higher classical and 
culturing studies. It can, hardly be said to have prepared for 
the professions and certainly it did not train in professional 
knowledge aiid skill. There was no connecting link between 
the college and the common school, which, stood for the masses. 
The early English system persisted as it persists in England 
still. They are having a row about it over there now, and seem 
likely to have a yet larger one. A system of acad,emies which 
was really a system of fitting schools for the colleges, developed 
in the better towns. Even the academies coniiect(!d but very 
little with the elementary schools. Accordingly there was no 
educational outlet for the children who completed thc^ elemen- 
tary schools. If a son of the poor got into an academy there 
^va.s some shock about it; and if he broke into a, profession it 
was because the fence was low and he had some unusual quali- 
ties in his outfit. 

This could not long be, and the ]mbli(' high school system 
came. It came v^ery near su])i)lanting the academies in the 
older states;; and, it kept them from ever being in the newer 
states. It took their ])lace as college feeders ; the colleges came 
to be glad to condescend to the high sch(H)ls also; indeed, their 
work of itself developed mauy colleges. The public high school 



97 

system Ijeeanie the strong connecting link 'between the elemen- 
tary schools and the colleges. Every effort was made to have 
the connections close and smooth. The road from "the kinder- 
garten to the university" was made continnous and easy. The 
colleges and universities were broadened in their w^ork and lib- 
eralized and popularized in their character. The scientific in- 
terests made a great fight against classical exclusiveness, and 
slowly got the better of the old Romanlike resistance. At all 
events, science broke in. Professional expertness came to have 
a scientific basis and came to require a higher scientific train- 
ing. The universities came to have professional schools, and 
got the laws changed so that students headed for the professions 
found it to their advantage, or were absolutely required, to go 
to them. Mechanical and agTicultural schools and colleges 
grew up, and often in association with the older literary col- 
leges and universities. The ideal of a university came to be 
one that could supply the best instruction in any study. There 
are very considerable areas in the country now% where every 
boy and every girl in the elementary schools thinks of the high 
school, and every one in the high school debates the matter of 
going to college. The stronger of both sexes feel injured if 
denied the advanced learning. 

That is not all. The influence of the teachers of all grades 
is exerted to send all of the children to the grade above, along 
the road that leads to the university. They are told of the equal 
rights of every one and of the increased resourcefulness and 
efiiciency, and therefore of the better chance, which is provided 
])y the higher training. Acting upon the American spirit and 
temperament, the result is quick and strong. On the whole it 
is well. Sometimes it is pathetic, for it often leads parents to 
sacrifice more than they ought, and sometimes it directs youth 
into places already well occupied and for which they have no 
special adaptation. It is saying nothing against the students 
most concerned, and nothing against the claims of the univer- 
sities, to say that there can be no doubt about the fact that many 
get into them who would be better off' in the end if they would 
])ut the qualities they have into other work, when they are 
without the factors which are requisite to success in undertak- 
ings which practically exact university training. There is seri- 
ous (pu'stion al)out many going to college Avho do go. In 



98 

schools, particularly the secondary schools and above, every one 
is told tliat he is lacking in every desirable quality if he is not 
hitching his wagon to a star. That is all right enough if there 
could be some discrimination about the kind of star that it 
would be well for the particular individual to try to harness 
up with. The true standards of value concerning positions and 
fitness for positions are often but poorly understood. There are 
many failures through misfits. In the indiscriminate scramble 
for places which will enable one to wear fine clothes and live 
in a great bouse or at tbe clubs, some get into places they 
can not fill, many w^ho manage to make a living in such places 
would be far happier and make a better living in other places, 
and many more lose tbeir best chances in life by a mistaken 
race after a. fleeting vision when substantial opportunities are 
actually and easily within their reach. 

There w^ould be quite as much of this as we can well afford 
if the educational system did not lead so exclusively to profesr 
sional employments and to the quasi professional positions and 
the managing positions in the business and industrial vocations. 
As it is, there is so much of it that it is actually making us 
poor. 

iSToTHiNG Leads to Craftsmanship. 

But that is not all. Any hand work tbat is found in the ele- 
mentary school — and on the whole it is very little — is sustained 
on the theory that it is a desirable accomplishment, an intel- 
lectual quickener, rather tban tbat all the world must work, and 
that work witb the hands must be much more common and quite 
as reputable as work with the head. Instead of leading to a 
trade it prepares for the manual training high school, if there 
be one, and that leads to the technological college, if it leads 
anywhere, and that to one of tbe engineering professions. 
Nothing in the common schools leads to a trade. 

The manual training high schools are too elaborate, too ex- 
pensive in a way, too dilettante, to lead to anything other tban 
one of the industrial professions; often they do not even pre- 
pare for training in one of these. They are much more like 
schools than shops, whereas they should be more like shojjs than 
schools. In buildings that have nothing of the appearance of 
a shop, they have machinery, tools, equipment, atmosphere, 



99 

theory, and practice, which differentiate them widely from the 
shop. They are managed by men who are more teachers than 
workmen, when they should be managed by men who are at 
least quite as much workmen as teachers. Often the machin- 
ery and tools make an interesting show without being needed 
or effectually used, because there is not a skilled workman to 
use them. Many a time a principal or teacher pleads for an 
appropriation with which to buy machinery, tools, and other 
equipment, without any definite theory, or plan, or end, in view. 
If refused, he would feel outraged and become a martyr. If 
given, he studies the catalogues and sees the agents for the pur- 
pose of spending the money in ways that will look well and 
make an impression upon the people, who always love an ob- 
ject lesson and are often susceptible and superficial about in- 
dustrial training. Real tradesmen and workmen discriminate; 
and they are amused by what they see. There is not enough 
substantial result to it. I know very well that this is not al- 
ways true, but quite as well that it is often true. 

It is true also that the overwhelming influence of American 
technical schools, from lowest to highest, is quite as much in 
the direction of turning out men for professional and manag- 
ing employments as is the influence of the purely literary and 
scientific schools. Of course it is for profressional employment 
in one of the industrial professions and for m.anaging positions 
in one of the leading manufacturing industries, but it is none 
the less for a professional and managing vocation. It does not 
train workingmen. It is saying little against the system to say 
that it is one-sided, in the effort to bring up the other side and 
develop a system that is better balanced. 

The unskilled labor in American cities is trained but very 
little in the American schools. It is now derived very largely 
from the less favored countries of the old world. American 
children are taught that they must hold themselves above un- 
skilled labor. It is, however, no uncommon thing to find young 
men and women in industrial and domestic service in this coun- 
try, who were better trained in elementary knowledge of read- 
ing, writing, and mathematics, as well as in the simple arts 
which make for ordinary efliciency, before they came to this 
country, than the young people of similar age and social plane 
who have always lived here. They are happier and of more 



100 

value to the country for it. It is due to the fact that the ele- 
meutary schools of tlie lauds from \\'hich they cauie had much 
less to do than our elementary schools here have, and were re- 
quired to do it more exactly; and to the further fact that those 
schools had in mind the training- of youth for work, rather than 
for professional or managing employments, or for mere accom- 
plishments. It is the fact that, our unskilled labor does not 
come out of our own schools, joined to the fact that the skilled 
labor that we have is so largely trained not in the schools but 
m a very haphazard way in the shops, that is disturbing the 
equilibrium of our factories, impeding our industrial })roduc- 
tivity, and raising so much criticism upon the unbalanced cur- 
riculum of the schools. 

The lines in all the schools above the eleuientary schools, are 
set hard 'and fast for professional employments and for man- 
aging positions in industrial employments, not only through 
the continual stirring of the ambitions which are buoyant in 
American youth, but also through the large provision for the 
literary and scientific training which is naturally incident 
thereto or is actually required by such employments. In the 
high schools, tlie colleges, the professional schools that are in- 
dependent as well as those related to the universities, in the 
business and commercial schools or independent schools of 
every kind, in the universities, and even in the technical schools 
of every grade, the whole scheme is set to turn out professional 
men, and managers, and captains of something or other, rather 
than skilled workmen. It is so, too, in the eleuientary schools 
where the lines are set at all. From the bottom to the top 
of the school system tlie eye is on the school above, and the 
school above leads to a professional or a managing employment 
rather than to a trade vocation. 

If the manual training in the high schools or the separate 
manual training schools of secondary grade, or the little indus- 
trial drawing or other simple industrial work in the elementary 
schools, be advanced in refutation of this statement, it is in- 
sisted that they do not refute it. The little industrial work in 
the elementary schools has been looked u})on as a di^'ersion, or 
as a ]ire])aration for the manual training in the high schools, 
and the enthusiastic advocates of manual training in the high 
schools have been content to rest their interest in it upon its 



101 

all-around culturing- and educational value, meaning thereby 
its value to intellectual virility and energy, rather than upon 
the fact that it would make a more skilled craftsman and there- 
fore an individual of more character and a citizen of more 
strength in the case of the man who works by himself alone 
and not as one of an organized force, and with his hands alone 
and not through the use of a complicated machine. The tech- 
nical schools are of course to be encouraged, but the very in- 
terests of capital will encourage them, and, at the most, when 
we think of their bearing upon men and women, they tend to 
make the human a part of the machine, or they lead to one of 
the engineering professions or to the captaining of workmen. 
From first to last, there has been little about the American edu- 
cational system, and there is now little about the American in- 
dustrial system to dignify and, uplift craftsmanship, or to mul- 
tiply and train the physical qualities of the individual man. 
Wholly apart from ihe one-sided tendencies of our educational 
system, the fact is that if any mechanical tendencies which a 
child may have are neglected until he gets into the high school, 
they are never likely to come to much anyway. And -tlie fur- 
ther fact is that sO' long as manual training has to be doniiuated 
by the method and atmosphere of the school rather than of the 
shop, and managed by one whom the capable workman regards 
as a sort of dilettante theorist rather than by one who likes to 
wear a blouse and overalls and actually does fine work with his 
hands, it is not likely to stimulate the best character in work- 
manship nor to turn out any considerable number of justly self- 
satisfied and abundantly desirable workmen. It may in part 
fit men for the work of the engineering colleges, which may 
make engineers of some of them. And in some of the eiigiueers 
there will develop qualities which will make for leadership in 
great constructive enterprises. But it all leads away from in- 
dependent craftsmanship. In a general way the same thing is 
true — perhaps more is true — of the commercial courses and the 
commercial schools. Doubtless they inspire some and aid a 
few to enlarge their efiiciency, but it is surely within the fact 
to say that the ratio of captains, or even of finished business 
men, they produce is, from an educational standpoint, discour- 
agingly small. 

In saying this it is not intended to urge that the literary, 



102 

and professional, and commercial, and, technical schools of all 
grades are worthless or not worth all they ha^^e cost. On the 
contrary, they each minister to a class and are, generally speak- 
ing, invalnable. It is only intended to urge that they are one- 
sided, that they meet the needs of the sitnation only partially, 
and that their theories and plans and methods are such that 
it is impossible for them to meet it completely. (They are so 
ample in numbers and good in character that they are turning 
out quite all of the professionals and captains that the coun- 
try requires, and are beginning to do it quite as thoroughly as 
is being done anywhere in the world.) 

ISTor is it intended to imply that the public schools are not 
doing the work they are arranged to do, in an efficient manner. 
On the contrary, again, the buildings average far better, the 
equipment is many times better, the courses are more complete 
and more logically related, and the teachers much better pre- 
pared and certainly no less conscientious, than ever before in 
the history of tiie country. It is only suggesting that, in tbe 
interest of the common people and of the country, the kinds of 
schools must be multiplied, that the educational scheme must be 
broadened, that attendance upon schools must be longer and 
more universal, and that the work of the lower schools must 
have much more bearing upon the labor of the masses. 

JSTeitiiek Schools JSTor Work for Children. 

As the schools have developed on the literary, scientific, and 
j)rofessional sides, the indenturing system has practically dis- 
appeared. Few boys are now apprenticed to a trade. Indeed, 
many of the trades have either disappeared, or so changed as 
to render the apprenticeshijj' system impracticable. This leads 
to a shortage of skilled workmen, and to th^e complaint by man- 
ufacturers that they can not get competent workmen. People 
also complain that the schools do not fit children for any ordi- 
nary duties in the stores and offices and factories. It also keeps 
children from getting work of any kind when they leave the 
elementary schools. If they get work it amounts to little, and 
too often leads to nothing. All of the conditions taken together 
almost force children to keep on in the school system and go 
on toward the professional and managing vocations which are 
more than full, and for which they lack adai^tation ; or else be 



103 

out of any kind of work for several years. As a fact, masses 
of them are out of sclaool and also out of work for a long- time, 
if not for all time. 

I shall not leave the entire responsibility for this either upon 
the parents or the children. Some of it must fall upon the 
provisions of the law ; some of it is chargeable to the inefficiency 
wdth which school attendance and child labor laws are en- 
forced; and some of it musti be attributed to the overloading 
and the slowness of the schools, and in some measure tO' the 
want of alertness and energy in school administration. Parents 
face hard problems concerning the family support, and are 
much influenced by the fancies of the children. The children 
can not know what leaving school means to them. ISTeither the 
control of the home nor that of the school over children is what 
it once was. Both homes and schools are awfully profligate of 
boys and girls; The break comes at a critical time in the phy- 
sical life of the child ; the time when he most needs control, re- 
straint, g-uidance, and cheer; the time when he most needs to 
be occupied, to be shown the need and the method of applica- 
tion to serious work, and to be directed into some work, never 
mind what it is, which he can do completely and be happy in 
the doing of it. Instead of that he is often running wild at 
this time; frequently impolite, mannerless, and sometimes im- 
pertinent; forgetting tbe things of value he has learned, learn- 
ing what he ought not to know until he is older, if at all, and 
developing uncontrollable, unambitious, and inefficient, if not 
vicious, qualities, which are more tlian likely to preclude him 
from ever becoming very much of a man. 

Does some one say that this is too highly colored, that it is 
not true of many, and that it is pessimistic? Rational optim- 
ism never shuts its eyes to the truth. What I have just said 
is literally and completely true of more than half the children 
of our people. And if true of only a much smaller number, it 
would be well worth my attention and my protest. 

There is fault in the law. It should require that children 
finish the elementary schools, or at least remain in them or in 
a trades school to the end of their sixteenth year, before they 
go to Work. It might well gather them into the schools before 
the eighth year, and it might well require us to make attend- 
ance more regular and more resultful. 



104 

There is fault, much fault, in the phm and in the work of 
the schools. If they do not have too many studies, they cer- 
tainly consuuie too much tiuie upon some of the studies they 
do have. There are too many g'rades of books in the same study. 
The thing is drawn out regardless of time and, almost, of in- 
terest, and certainly of educational efficiency. The day of 
reckoning is linrdly antici])ate(l at all. For example, there is 
almost enough time of the child ])ut u])on such a study as geog- 
ra])hy to enahk' him to K'arn a fin-eign language, when the fact 
is he will learn all the geography it will vvov be necessary for 
him to know in a f(>\v minutes Avhen it is desirable foi- him to 
know it. 

The reason why so many children leave tiie elementary 
schools before finishing the course is not so much f)ecause their 
parents need their labor, or because the law says they uiay, 
as because there is too much wandering around in tall grass, 
too much lime wasted in tlic merely incidental accom])animents 
of schools and of teaching, it is because the work of the schools 
IS behind the ages of the chihlren. It is because the work 
which we set to be done by a woman teacher in the fifth grade 
aiul the way we ex]>ect her to do it can no longer be tolerated 
by a boy ])assing into his Hftoeuth year. 

The hard fact is tliat we ought to get children well started 
earlier and push them along from one grade to another more 
rapnlly than we do, and I entertain no doubt hut that W(> ought 
to do the work in the elenumtary grades, or such ]>arts of it as 
are fundanunital and jjotential, in at least one less year than 
we take for it. In any e\-ent, if our elementary school system 
is to continue to do about the work which is now assigned to 
it, it must make a |)oint of getting children to the end of it by 
the time they finish their fV)urteenth year, it is monsti-ous that 
two-thirds of the childi-en of the State do not go through tho e]e- 
inentary schools. If great numbers of them do it at all they 
will have to do it by the time they are fifteen. Long before 
that their minds should be directed toward definite ii'ork which 
they may do, and nuiy like to do; and when that time comes, 
they should be i)ut to doing it and hel])ed to do it {>xactly and 
well, to the end that they may have sonu^ pleasure in it. To 
that we will now direct our attention. 



105 
Good Citizenship Depexdpjxt Upox Workmex. 

I hesitate not a moment in saying that good citizenship and 
the thrift and morals of the country are quite as dependent 
upon the mass being trained to skilled work with their hands, 
as upon a class being advanced in scientific knowledge or in pro- 
fessional accomplishments. The greatness of the nation is con- 
tingent upon bringing the truths which science unlocks to the 
life, and particularly to the vocations, of the people. But that 
can be done only wherQ a people is inured to uwrh; where they 
have, and love, vocations. 

The successful workman is a happier man and a more reli- 
able citizen, a much larger factor in giving strength and bal- 
ance to his country, than the unsuccessful or the only half suc- 
cessful professional man. It adds little to one's value as a 
civic unit that he be elaborately trained in theory, or in sci- 
ence; or in skill, if his training has l)een at the cost of his bal- 
ance ; if he knows one thing at the expense of many other things 
which every good citizen is bound to knoAV, and of that balance 
which every good citizen is bound to have. And it makes lit- 
tle addition to the strength of a nation that some of the people 
ha,ve the highest learning, even that the advanced schools and 
the professional life are overcrowded, if the masses have not 
love and capacity for growing things and for making things. 

The scientific habit and the zeal for exact knowdedge and the 
superior work of the gymnasia and of the universities, caused 
Germany, thirty years ago, first to note the educational difiiculty 
which we are beginning to realize. It was this which led the 
young Emperor to say to the Berlin Conference on Secondary 
Education, in 1890, "The course of training in our schools is 
defective in many ways. The chief reason is that since the 
year 1870 the classical philologists have laid the chief empha- 
sis on the subject-matter of instruction, on learning and know- 
ing, not on the formation of character and the actual needs of 
life. * * * The demands made in the examinations show 
that less stress is laid on practical ability than on knowledge. 
The underlying principle of this is that the scholar must, above 
all things, know as much as possible ; whether that knowledge 
fits the actual needs of after life is a secondary consideration. 
. . . The chief defect in our schools is the lack of a national 



]06 

basis for the instruction. . . . Onr schools have undertaken a 
task beyond human strength, and have, in my opinion, caused 
an over-production of highly educated people, — more than the 
nation can bear." 

Lack of Industrial Tratxiivct in American Schools. 

There is nothing which now appeals to the popular fancy in 
America so much as "industrial training." The newspapers 
are full of it. Ever}^ public audience responds to it quickly. 
The authorities of charitable and penal institutions are trying 
to install it. The school boards are all in favor of it but hardly 
kno^^• luiw to accomplish it. They do something about it be- 
cause they dare not do nothing. They do not do much because 
tlie pedagogical mind is not very clear about policies and plans, 
because the professional and ca]iitalistic classes are too often 
uninformed, uninterested, or seltish about it, and because the 
labor organizations are skeptical about its ultimate effect upon 
the scale of wages. The confusion and uncertainty are wide- 
spread. 

!NoT is this all. Up to this time the American spirit has 
made *^4ndustrial training" a very different thing in the Ameri- 
can mind from what it is in the minds of other peoples. In 
our mind it is, in part, culturing, an aid to industrial or en- 
gineering leadership, something tliat will lift one to a 
place above that of the ordinary workman. Accordingly, we 
have installed it at the top of the educational system and left 
the bottom tO' take care of itself. In the minds of other peo- 
ples it means craftsmanship, the training of the masses in 
good workmanship. Accordingly, they have intrenched it at 
the bottoin of their educational systems and left the top to 
meet its own needs. The top is more able than the bottom to 
get what it needs. Whatever the motive or the logic, Germany 
is educationally more democratic than the United States. 

We have never to any extent imdertaken to provide voca- 
tional training, or even any direct preparation for craftsman- 
ship, in tlie public elementary schools. There haw been move- 
ments for the extension of both freehand and mechanical draw- 
ing, on the ground that we must give art its op})ortunity and 
jirepare for the manual training work in the high schools. In 
very few places have we gone farther in the hnver schools. 



107 

In the city of Cleveland, fifteen years ago, some phases of 
mechanical and domestic work were introduced into every 
grade of all of the elementar\^ schools, and I am informed that 
it still continues. In the four grades, lower grades, it con- 
sisted of sand molding, clay modeling, paper folding, outlining 
with the needle, construction through the use of cardboard, and 
all phases of elementary drawing. The aesthetic taste was in- 
cidentally commenced to be developed by combining colors and 
arranging objects. In the fifth and sixth grades simple geo- 
metrical forms, derived from the study of paper and clay forms 
in the grades below, and cut in wood by the use of the knife, 
rule, square, compass, and pencil, were given the boys, and sim- 
ple needle work, involving the principal stitches in plain sew- 
ing, were given the girls. This was done by the class at their 
desks, under the direction of the class teachers after they had 
been instructed at grade meetings by the special supervisor. In 
the seventh and eighth grades the boys were given light bench 
work, and the girls plain cooking, and for that purpose were 
sent from each of several buildings at appointed times to cen- 
tral rooms specially prepared, and to teachers specially trained 
for the purpose. The system operated smoothly and was en- 
thusiastically received in the schools and in the city. There 
was nothing new about the work itself, but the adaptation of 
it to all the grades in a large city system was doubtless unpre- 
cedented in the country. It certainly attracted much discus- 
sion and comment, and some official and pedagogical protest. 
At the National Meeting of Superintendents at Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, in 1892, after a supervisor in the Cleveland schools had 
presented a paper describing it, one of the most experienced 
and progressive school men of the country went directly over 
to the apprehensive and subdued superintendent from Cleve- 
land and asked, "Is there anything you don't propose to do in 
the primary schools?" But the industrial conditions in Cleve- 
land were unusually favorable to it. Moreover, it taught no 
trade. It led to no particular craft. It was more in the direc- 
tion of general accomplishments than of specific efficiency and 
skill. This much was true of it, however ; it formed some basis 
for the work of trade schools, as well as of manual training 
schools and technological colleges. Yet the skepticism ex- 
pressed at Richmond has been widely and well intrenched. Even 



108 

the very siiii])lo phases of preparation for industrial vocations 
which aroused it have found little more than theoretical and 
halting' acceptance in American elementary schools. 

Above the elementary sch(M)]s, industrial and vocational work 
has been given larger opportunity. In a great many of the high 
schools there are courses in manual training, and in all of the 
larger city systems there are manual training high schools. No 
one claims that this has much bearing upon craftsmanship. At 
the most it can relate only to a small part of the children who 
go to the public schools, and as to them, it is for intellectual 
(juickening or preparation for one of the engineering profes- 
sions, or for the training of men to direct other men who' work 
Avitli their hands. 

In recent years some special vocations, like stenography and 
typewriting, and other things relating to office work, have found 
their way into the public secondary schools. Three or four 
public vocational schools, of secondary grade, supported by a 
municipality or' partly by the municipality and partly by the 
state, like the Washington Irving High School of New York 
City, the Textile School of Lowell, Mass., the Central High 
School of Commerce of PhiUuUdphia, and some of the evening 
high schools of IJutfalo and Xew York City have been estab- 
lished. But their very names prove how far they are from the 
training of the masses in workmanship. 

Many of the universities, particularly the land grant and 
tax supported universities, have great engineering schools, but 
their work all leads essentially to the industrial professions 
I'ather than to craftsmanship, although doubtless the sense 
which tJiey drill into the heads of their students concerning 
the honor which belongs to the man who can do fine work with 
his hands, and likes to work in a blouse, is adding somewhat 
to tlie attractiveness of skilled labor. 

Private business schools which, for protit, have uudertaken 
to train pupils in sim])ler mathematics, bookkeeping, stenog- 
raphy, business forms, and the like, have been a great help to 
many for a long time. Many of the Young Men's Christian 
Associations have established schools of this kind, and some of 
them are beginning to include trades schools in their scheme. 
Several correspondence schools have attracted thousands of pu- 
jnls and developed the existence of a widespread desire for self- 



109 
improvement. In Xew York City there is one company of 
financiers, merchants, and real estate men, and another com- 
])any interested in honse furnishing and decorating, and yet 
another interested in the building trades, and still another in- 
terested in the automobile trade, and doubtless many others, 
have set up schools or lecture courses for the special training 
of competent assistants. Some of the great rrmnufacturing or 
construction, companies, like the Westinghouse Electnc Com- 
pany and the Baldwin. Locomotive Works, have set up schools 
of their own. They have prepared schoolrooms, employed effi- 
cient teachers, and laid out very considerable courses of work 
in order to train men for their own service. They take young 
men on trial for perhaps six months, and if they show some 
proficiency and aptitude, and will bind themselves to remain 
and follow their work for a term of three or four years, they 
enter into written agreement with them to that effect, and dur- 
ing the period they work in the shop they arc under instruc- 
tion and receive moderate pay upon a schedule which gradually 
advances as the apprentice may be assumed to grow in compet- 
ency. 

But all this, if it illustrates anything, shows the general lack 
of preparation for vocational employments in the United States, 
and the disconnected, very often unsubstantial, and, ordinarily 
self-interested and sporadic movements to overcome the diffi- 
culty, rather than any general plan for meeting a very wide 
and very imperative demand. 

I have been speaking in a general way of vocations common 
to l)oys, but the situation is no less urgent as to girls. While 
rhe old apprenticeship system has been gradually disappearing, 
and boys have been going from the country to the cities, and 
machinery has wrought such changes in men's work, the oldr 
fashioned kind of housekeeping which trained girls to expert- 
uess in the household arts, has been disappearing also. Voca- 
tions which were formerly open only to boys are now open to 
girls, with the result that by the tens of thousands they know 
nothing of good home making, and, worse than that, they are 
proud of it. It is bad enough for an attractive young miss to 
be unable to make a loaf of bread, or broil a steak, or use a 
needle; the limit is passed when a college makes her such a 
little idiot as to think it is smart to boast of it. The schools 



110 

are not so responsible for this as the mothers are, but perhaps 
the schools ought to join with the mothers in the effort to cure 
it. And aside from the employments of women relating to the 
household., the business employments which women are enter- 
ing in such great numbers may well concern the schools. And 
moreover, the principle that all educational opportunities, or 
their unquestioned equivalents, are to be extend(^d to girls and 
boys alike, is to have acceptance and expression in all parts of 
this country. 

The public school system lias had but little thought of crafts- 
manship, by which the greater part of the people must live, and 
upon which the moral and intellectual health of the people and 
the greatuess of the nation nuist depend; the work of the 
schools has h'd almost exclusively to mere culture and to pl*o- 
fessional and uiaiiaging employments; the efficiency of the 
teachers has been measured by the number and training of the 
pupils they sent to the grade above, and thus the pupils have 
been led to think that the grade above was the goal of life; 
and the grade above has led to literature and the sciences and 
to professional and managing vocations. This has taken a 
great many into situations for which they were not adapted, 
and has overstocked the professions; has resulted in too many 
partial or com]>lete failures, and is operating both to the in- 
d.ustrial and intellectual disadvantage of the country. 

American Aims. 

It is clear enough that we will not only have to reckon with 
German industrialism, but also that we may learn much to our 
advantage from the Gennan system of education, and I shall 
therefore not hesitate to draw as uumy coui]iarisons with Ger- 
many as I may. We must distinguish a difference in aim and 
purpose, however, and can do it none too clearly, nor too soon. 
It is a difference which is of national concern to us. The Ger- 
man purpose seems to be to train boys and girls so as to add 
to the physical and therefore to the military strength of the 
empire. The American purpose is to train boys and girls so 
as to enable them to make the most of themselves. Our ideal 
seems the noblest, but as yet the Germans are widely and more 
uniformly realizing their ideal better than we are ours. Of 



Ill 

course, m tlie one case, the training for national strength inci- 
dentally makes useful and potential men and women ; and of 
course, in the other case, training for the highest possibilities 
of manhood and womanhood incidentally makes for the great- 
ness of the nation. But a national policy which gives every 
man his opportunity ought to make a larger percentage of pro- 
ductive, and therefore happier men, and in the end, an infi- 
nitely more versatile and potential people, if it can be carried 
out in ways which will not give youth a beclouded outlook and 
lead to too many misfits between adaptation and opportunity. 

It can not have escaped our observation, moreover, that one 
who starts out for a professional or managing vocation and 
fails, never takes up craftsmanship afterwards and succeeds; 
while a good craftsman sometimes develops into an excellent 
professional man, and very often develops intO' the very best 
kind, of a manag'er of his craft. And it is worse than idle, be- 
cause it is justly productive of false standards and of ill-will, 
to put one to managing any business or any work, who has not 
learned the business by exploiting its processes from the bot- 
tom up to the place which he has come to occupy. Right there 
is one of the essential weaknesses of our American business life. 
Through our ambitions^ through a rather hazy notion that we 
can hold any place we can get into, and do anything we can get 
a chance to do, through fortune or favoritism coupled with a 
fallacious logic a,bout preparation, men get into positions where 
they exercise control over other men who really understand the 
details of the craft or the business better than their overseers 
do. It all illustrates the vital need of broader training for crafts- 
manship at the foundations of the craft and in the early years 
of the 3'outh's life, if all are to have an equal chance, and if boj^s 
are not to advance to pitfalls i>ecause handicft])ped with super- 
ficiality. 

What Are We To Do? 

While the schools are providing every conceivable kind of 
instruction for the head workers, the hand workers leave in- 
struction altogether when they leave the elementary schools, and 
that is commonly before they are prepared for work or are ma- 
ture enough to plan for themselves. What little has been done 
for these has been isolated and unsystematic, and done by pri- 



112 

vate enterprise. Tims the public seliool systeui is one-sided, — 
nnjnst to the greater nnniber and ineffieient m meeting an over- 
whelming })hase of the nation's educational need. To- be con- 
sistent we must do less for the head workers, or more for the 
hand workers. We will not go back. All, not some, education 
is a passion in America. We will go forward. 

But just how ? It is a large matter. It means much more 
expense — but that is tiie least of it. It involves a large new 
cha]3ter in our educational theory, a serious study of other edu- 
cational systems, radical changes in schoolhouses and courses, 
training of a different class of teachers. Before that can be 
commenced., or while it is being done, there will have to be much 
discussion, a great, deal of inissiona.ry work, a consolidation of 
sentiment, and many new- laws. The people of the schools may 
well have a plan, and one that is well fortified by theory and 
by fact, if they can. 

It is but just to ourselves to say that the problem s^enis less 
difficult in other countries because the social cleavage is more 
distinct, children expect to continue upon tlie plane in which 
they were born, and the masses expect to work with their hands. 
Moreover, the governments are beginning to see that the 
strength of the nation depends upon training workmen, and the 
outlook of the government settles things. We do not. worry 
about the strength of the United States. We take that for 
granted. We are for giving every one his chance, and for help- 
ing every one to make the most of himself. The course of other 
nations leaves out individual possibilities. It cares little for 
the individual as such. It neither reckons with nor promotes 
such an ambitious, buoyant, confident., aggressive national tem- 
perament as is common in the United States. Nevertheless, 
our course is producing a temperament which is top-heavy with 
self-satisfa.ction, and doubtless needs more ballast in the hold. 
We would not lose our optimistic temperament if we could : 
we will restore the balance. 

If we compare with Grermany we shall do it with the best of 
them so far as training for hand industry is concerned. There 
is no other great nation where education is a.t once so scientific, 
so balanced, so effective, and so free — scientific through re- 
search and the habit of taking pains — balanced because the edu- 
cational system has come to be a pyramid with industrialism 



113 

at its base — effective because the habit of sending children to 
school with regularity is universal^and free through the clear 
appreciation of the fact that the arbitrary power of the state 
is entirely consistent with the purest democracy in learning. 

What the Germans Say of Us. 

Germany sent an educational commission to the St. Louis 
Exposition in 1904 with instructions tO' study the school ex- 
hibits at the exposition and quietly investigate the educational 
system of this country, and then report with particular refer- 
ence to the bearing of the educational systems of their country 
and ours upon German and American industry and trade. The 
commission pursued its work very quietly. It did not seek the 
lime light; it did not proclaim its route of march by the use of 
a military band ; it circled the educational conventions ; it did 
not have itself invited to dimiers and make speeches at us; in 
some way it even escaped the alert and aggressive attentions of 
the press. The commission's report may be alike interesting 
to German and "American readers, but it is not altogther satis- 
factory to American complacency. 

It declared that America is abundant in resources, filled with 
energy, exceedingly quickwitted and resourceful ; that a vigor- 
ous people is 2>ossessed of such mighty and largely undeveloped 
physical resources, and has such sjalendid advantage in coast 
lines and commercial situation, that undoubtedly it will have 
to be reckoned with in the trade and commerce of the somewhat 
distant future ; but that the United States is so seriously handi- 
capped with manifest disadvantages, of which. Americans are 
unconscious, that no American industrial competition at any 
early day need be taken seriously by the German nation. They 
said these disadvantages make a buoyant confidence without suf- 
ficient underpinning for it. a "feeling of complacent satisfac- 
tion with everything American," an expectation that, without 
much planning, and without much philosophical study, or con- 
certed action, or definite plan, or co-operative efiiciency, every- 
thing will come out all right whenever the need of it arises.. 
They emphasized the entire absence of provision for public 
schools supplying systematic instruction in craftsmanship, and 
asserted that this lack is sufficient to overcome anv natural ad- 



114 

vantage in resources or geographieal. situation, Tliis commis- 
sion was not constituted exclusively of teachers, but of teach- 
ers, merchants, manufacturers, economists, publicists, and con- 
structionists. They were thinking much of German trade and 
they advised their ]ieoi)]e not to be disturbed about any Ameri- 
can interference with it at any early day. 

That is certainly enough to make the children of our "Uncle 
Samuel" sit bolt upright and look all around the horizon. Our 
ideals are not those of Germany. We are not primarily con- 
cerned about breaking down German trade. We have nothing 
but good will towards our flaxen-haired and interesting Ger- 
man cousins. We are not apprehensive about the physical 
strength, or, in other words, the war power, of our nation; and 
we are not going to bend our educational and industrial policies 
very exclusively to that end. All of that will take care of it- 
self, notwithstanding the self-satisfaction and complacency 
which the German commission saw clearly and reported cor- 
rectly. But we (O'c concerned that every American child shall 
have his or her chance ; that that chance shall be at least as good 
and great as the chance of any child in any nation upon the 
eartli ; and that there shall be nothing in the iiolicies of the 
country to mislead any child about his chance. We do believe 
that the greatness of this nation, the political attributes of its 
citizenship, and the measure of its influence upon the thought 
of other nations and upon the good of mankind, depend upon 
making all that can be made of every son and daughter of the 
Republic ; and we do know that the physical and moral strength 
of men and women depend ujxm their having and loving work, 
and that their having and lo\-ing W(H-k depend u])0!i their being 
able to do it well, more than upon any other factor in human 
life. 

SoMETiiixG OR Nothing. 

If the time has come and the conditions are rij)e for the 
movement we have in mind, let us try to oi'ganize it upon a 
})hin that will work, and in the working will ])roduce continually 
enhirging results for all the children, all the schools, all of the 
industrial, and therefore all of the nmral and intellectual, ac- 
tivities of the country. Xothing can come from a j^lan that 
fails to reckon Avith all of the interests concerned, that does not 



115 

call to its support the aid of both employer and employee, or 
that is incapable of results amply commensurate with the labor 
and the cost. If we should have to compromise logic, efficiency, 
coherency, and completeness out of it in order to avoid issues, 
either with capital or organized labor, let us assume that we 
are not yet ready, and, notwithstanding the continuing and in- 
creasing disadvantages, let us wait until we are. 

To be successful, this movement must sustain organic rela- 
tions with the public school system. It can not succeed unless 
it is to articulate with that system. To articulate with it, it 
must be under the same management. It must appeal to the 
civic pride, the pedagogical sense, the practical experience, the 
democracy, and tlie enthusiasms of the country. Then it must 
have a share in the passion of the country for education, and 
it must be part and parcel of the system of the common schools, 
which is enshrined in the hearts and the usage, the constitutions 
and the laws, of the land. It can not be shunted off to state 
commissions and local boards, which are out of legal relations, 
and possibly out of sympathetic relations, with the established 
educational organization of the })eople. To be resultful it must 
get from, and it must give to, tbe public schools. That, of 
course, means that there must be nothing about the movement 
which docs not accord with the fundamental basis of the com- 
mon schools, and it also means that there must be some modifi- 
cations in the present plan of the schools in order to give it a 
comfortable and useful place. I am not at all sure that that 
may not be done with quite as much advantage to our common 
intellectual education, as to our industries. 

To be successful, it must not make the mistake of minister- 
ing to the highly technical and highly organized industries, car- 
ried on ill great factories, so much as to the mechanical trades 
which may appeal to the independence and satisfy the ambitions 
of the individual. It must, of course, do what it may for the 
employees of the factories, but it must know that that will have 
to be very general, and will ha\'e to apply to general intelli- 
gence rather than technical eificiencv, because the work which 
has to be done in a factory, which relates to a single feature of 
a complicated process, will have to be learned, in the factory itr 
self. The main point of the proposition must be the develop- 
ment of ivorhme)i rather than of professionals or managers, and 



116 

tlic vil;il hiisis of it iimst. be the iiilicront right of every Ameri- 
can cliild III his chance to make the most of himself in the in- 
dnstrial, as well as the intellectual, life of the couiitrv. 

Kkc'om m k.\ i>a rioNS, 

Then mv sut]:;ij;esti(>iis and my tentative ])lan may ]ierlia])s be 
stat(Ml as follows : 

2. Iu'(inire attendance at seven years of ag'e, instead of 
eig-ht, and h't it continue, in elenicntary school or trades school, 
to seventeen, but excuse from attendance before eight, at the 
|>a rents' request, on the ground of immaturity, and also excuse 
from attendance wh(>nev(n- tli(> work in the elementary school 
and trades school is completed, or after fifteen if the child is 
regularly at work. 

.'). l^^slablish schools for teaching trade vocations, the work 
to begin at the end of the elementary school course, and continue 
for three years. 

4. Let the trad(^s schools be oj)en both in the day time and 
evening. 

5. i^^stablish continuation schools, to be open mainly in the 
evenings, where the Avork shall be of a gi'ueral character, suited 
to the needs of youth who ai'c employed through the day and 
are nol doing the work in the trades schools. In other words, 
make <Hir evening schools more general and b(>tter. Let the 
work in the continuation schools go perha]is half \vay oi- nu>re 
through the high school course, but with less fornialisni about it. 

(!. Shorten tJie tinu^ in the eleuunitary schools to seven years. 
Take out what it is not vital for a child to know in order to 
Icai'u or to do other things for himself. Assume that he will 
learu and do things on his own account if he has the power. 
Strive to give him power, and expect that through it he will 
get knowledge. Stop reasoning that mere inforuuitiou will 
give him power. Stop th(> dress parade and pretence about 
teaching, which consninc time unnecessarily. Push the child 
along and aim to have him iinish the elementary school in tlie 
fourteenth yeai'. When he is tifteen send him to the trades 
school whether he has linislied the elementar\- si'hool or not, 

7. Assume that if the child does not go to the high sclio(»l. 



117 

his school work iiiiiy cik] with his seventeenth, and not in his 
fourteenth, year. 

8. Put into the elementary schools, from the very beginning, 
some phase of industrial work. Up to the last year or two let 
it be work that can be done in the schoolroom, at the desks, un- 
der the ordinary teachers, and will occupy two or three hours 
a week. This might proceed from folding paper, molding sand, 
modeling clay, outlining with a needle, to the simple knife work 
in wood, plain sewing, knitting, and the like. In the last year 
or two send the classes to central rooms specially prepared, per- 
haps to the trade schools, for more complex wood work, cook- 
ing, etc. Always emphasize the drawing. 

9. As the child comes to the end of the elementary schools, 
expect him to elect whether he will go to the high school, to 
a trades school, or to work. 

10. Wherever he goes, expect that the schools will keep 
track of him until he is at least seventeen. If he goes to the 
trades school, expect him to get into the possession of the funda- 
mental knowledge and something of the skill of a trade by his 
seventeenth or eighteenth year. If he goes tx) work in a store 
or factory, expect him to come to the continuation school till 
his seventeenth year is completed. Have him and his parents 
understand that he is responsible to the schools until he is per- 
haps eighteen years old. 

1 1. Set up trades schools in spacious, but not necessarily or- 
nate buildings. Start the particular kind of trades schools that 
the business of the town and the interests of the trades call for. 
Let it be understood that wherever there are a sufficient num- 
ber of children to learn a particular trade, there will be a school 
to teach it to them. Let the trades school partake more of the 
character of the shop than of the school. Hold to books, some- 
what, particularly books whi(;h the pupils will be glad to read 
by themselves, carry mathematics a little farther, lay emphasis 
upon work with a pencil ; let the main part of tlie work be with 
the hands; and let the atmosphere of the place be free and com- 
fortable, so that young people will like it. Let the teaching be 
done by real artisans, who are intellectually balanced and can 
teach, rather than by teachers who can use tools only indiffer- 
ently. Above all, have teachers who are not afraid of youth, 



lis 

and so arc not iiiidci' tlic ncccssitv <»f limw-bcating and ])adger- 
ing tliciii a. iiTcat deal, hut i-atlicr who coimiiand rcsjjec't hceanse 
(d' what, tlicv arc, and ciin h'lid the w;iv lo ihc ph'astirc of really 
doing things. 

12. Keep the trades schools open iil'lernoons and cvcjnings. 
lia\'e their pupils attend from four or five hours to as many 
hours a week as the ])upil can give. L<'t the training he individ- 
ind and let the |)r()gress of the iMi])il (le|)cn(l ni)on himself and 
upon the time he can give; hut allow him to engage in other 
wock for pay if he must,. 

l-'i. Modify the child labor laws sO' they will articulate with 
the |)lan, and cnfoi-ce them. Re(juire employers to rogidate 
their aifaii's so that em|)loyees may attend continuation schools 
or a ti'ades school at least four or fi\'e lioni's per w(M'k. 

14. Let the trades schools he supjMirted by the town, but give 
them sullicient state aid to encourage their organization and dis- 
pose them to conform to the needs of the situation. 

15. JVLeet any dennind on behalf of girls as well as ou be- 
half of boys. 

1(). l\lake it (piite j)ossibIe for one in a trades school to go 
1(» a nninnal training high school, and \dce x'ci'sa, but be careful 
to a\did the inference that one is to ])re|)ai'e for another. Let 
it be understood that each stands upon its own footing and leads 
to ver\' (litFerent ends. 



119 



Conclusion. 

UV linrc cxplolied (he fiiiulftinciilal princi pics of oar democ- 
raci) in onr politics and in oiii- i-cliaidn innch more completely 
and satisfactorily than in our education or in our indusiries. 
The a])])]ication of those ])rinciples to onr training- and onr work 
of hand is now to \)v ])V('ss('d tf) conclnsions. 

It is a matter of great moment to the; country and to what 
the country stands for in the world ; and it is a matter of pre- 
eminent, concern t« the State which has the largest population 
and. is first in finance and in publication, as well as first in the 
commercial and manufacturing activities of the Union. 

The })eople of the State hav'e the power in their hands. They 
liave millions of boys and girls t/) raise aright. Nothing is 
clearer than that results turn ui)on the training. 1'hey have 
l)usiness to promote. The outcome is determined by the course 
ihat IS taken. Our children and our work are interdependent. 
One interest must hel]) the other if we would grow in the ele- 
ments which make a coinmon wealth great. It is becoming more 
and more obvious every day that, wdiether we would wish it so 
or not, a steadily increasing weight of r('S]K)nsibility must rest 
upon the schools. 

The usefulness of our scx^iety to the individual dcix-nds u]ton 
the character and the efficiency of the units who (•()m])rise the 
mass. 

The worth of the individual to the State, on the othei- hand 
de])ends u))on the common a('('e[)tance of the ])rinciples of the 
(lolden liule, as well as upon the aud)itions which are insjdred 
by the CQmmon thinking and the ])i'evalent anxiety and aptitude 
of the people for work. 

Whether the work be intellectual or manual has nothing to 
do with the right of the toiler to respect and regard. 

Individual success and the growing strength of a ])eo[)le must 
come, if it comes at all, through steady application by growing 
numbers, through increasing competency, through sound living, 
and through the slow accreti(ms of goods and of esteem. 

It would be an appalling and pathetic mistake for a people 
to think that subtlety and greed can become the basis of either 
personal or national prosperity. 



120 

Economic couditions have forced combinations. The disap- 
pearance of individual responsibility in the corporation and the 
labor union, has wrought havoc with old-fashioned thinking and 
with moral fiber. 

The time must soon come when the man in the corporation 
shall be stopped from using the common power of the people 
to oppress rather than to aid the people, and when the man in 
the union shall be stopped from using the organized strength 
of his fellows to do the least he can for his wage, and from debas- 
ing himself through subtle antagonism to the people for whom 
he Avorks, or a heavy shadow will rest upon the pathway of the 
Republic. 

The man in the union, and all the rest of us, both in this 
generation and the next, must be aided, more completely by the 
schools, and to do that some radical changes in the basis, the 
thought, and the plan of the schools seem imperative. 

The child must have his chance,— an equal, open, hopeful, 
chance. But he must not be misled. His chance is in work. 
It is in his becoming accustomed to discipline, to direction, to 
indiistry, and to persistence, before he is sixteen years of age. 

The chance is lessening rather than enlarging through too 
much sentimentality in the schools. I do not think our young- 
people are more immoral, — I think they are more moral, than 
the young people of the last generation, or the one before that, 
were, but I think they are distinctly more irresponsible, falsely 
polite on occasions, and distinctly impolite and often imperti- 
nent the rest of the time, than their predecessors were; that 
they have more information and less power ; and that it is due 
to the weakening control of the home, and to pedagogical phi- 
losophies which are either fallacious or are unwisely applied, 
as well as to work which is undesirable or too much attenuated, 
in the schools. Let us resume some old-fashioned notions about 
work, about the child as well as the teacher doing his part of 
the work, and about the direction and, the control of children. 

Even though we regret the fact, I am confident that the 
chance of the American child depends upon the school supply- 
ing opportunities for his physical, as well as his intellectual, 
faculties, which were formerly supplied outside of the schools. 
He must have a wider range of things to do, he must be allowed 



121 

to choose when he can ; and he mnst then be required to do what 
he imdertakes. 

His training must be more exact and definite. He must be 
trained in a vocation and taught that he must uplift his craft 
and help his craftsmen, while he allows no one less worthy than 
himself to rob him of the benefits of his individual skill, or of 
his fundamental right to use it in the way which will bring him 
the most advantage. He must be distinctly told that he can 
not have the profit which belongs to other men through their 
knowledge, skill, and thrift; that shiftlessness can bear none 
but bitter fruit ; and that there is no probable chance and noth- 
ing in the thought of his country which will make it otherwise. 

Our schools can not long continue to give an advantage to a 
minority, nor to give more aid to the intellectual than the in- 
dustrial interests of our life. 

Let us bring about as much of it as we can for our State. 
To that end let us not be afraid of new plans. Let us not think 
that the trend of events ought not to be. Even though we de- 
part from the thought and the practice of the past, let us work 
out the foundation principles of our democracy in our educa- 
tion, arid let us make our knowledge and our training potent in 
our industries. And let us make our industries contribute not 
only to our wealth and, to our strength but to our manhood as 
y/ell. Then we shall assure the free American chance to every 
one, and we shall give a new interpretation and a new power 
to the essential factors of our common life. 



122 



MOllK rSKKTL SCHOOLS. 



"Of all llic lii.ri>-('r ediiciitiouiil luoA'cinents of the time prob- 
;il)lv ii(» ollici- is (IcstiiK'd lo Iiunc so I'arrcachiiiii iiiHiunioe as 
tiial w'liicli seeks !<» introduce iiilo our school wdi'k a more dis- 
liucll\- ulililarian purjxise tliau has hefoi'e been recoi>'uized. 
Tlie i;'euei-al objecl of I he inl I'cxhictiou of this ])ur|iose has been 
so much uikU'I' recent discussion that it is hardly necessary to 
repeat this hei-e. W(» are learninii", however, from tlie ex])eri- 
eiice of olhei' peoph', that it pays in every sense to train for ef- 
ficiency in action as well as for efHciency in tliinkino', and that, 
r conceive, is I he underlyin*;' mo'tive of a rii>,'ht soil o[' voca- 
tional Irainiuii'. We are recoi>,Tiizini;' that in the discdiara'e of 
its duly to itself the State is Ixmnd to consider as nuudi the man 
who is to work with his hamis as it does him whose labcu' is to 
lie (d' the head; indeed that is the rightly organized industrial 
slate; there can be no coniid(4e sepai'ation of one from the 
other, and, thei'cfore, thai pr(i(lucti\-e industry is entitled to 
men traine(| to co-ordinate hand and brain in a hi,i;her, better 
and, thei'cfore, more protitable workmanship. 

"It is perhaps not easy to say to what extent this new t'dn- 
catiomil ideal implies a reori;anization of onr school system. 
It is my o|)iiiioii that so lar as the elemenlary school is con- 
cerned such reor«ia,iiizatioii is hardly denuuub'd exce))t in so 
far as hand work tliron<ili manual Irainina,' is Jiiven i>"reater em- 
phasis. 1 do not believe that it implies new obligation on llie 
community to i>,-ive in special schools, in nii>-ht and continnation 
schools the same oj)})<)rtnnities to the _i>,reat majority who are to 
serve the world l)y tlie toil of the hands that are now freely 
<ii\'en to those whose service is to i;-ive thrtmoh the more dis- 
linctly literary t-allinii's." — IVIaine Snj)erintendent (d' Public 
Schools. 



123 



AGRTCULTUKAL AND INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS IN 

SCHOOLS. 

. Sec. 224. TAl'diri" IX PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Tt shall 
ho lawful for the departiiient of public instruction to include 
agricultural and industrial pursuits among the branches of in- 
struction taught by the public schools of the Territory. 

Sec. 225. AS PRESCRrBEJ) I!V DEPARTMENT. The 

dopartiiK'ut of puldie iustniction shall have power to prescribe 
the manner and designate the places in which such jHirsuits 
shall be conducted, and also to determine the extent to which 
they shall be followed, either generally or to suit ])artienlar 
[)laces. 

Sec. 226. USING- PUBLIC^ LANDS. For the purpose of 
this cha])ter it shall be lawful for the department of ])ublic in- 
struction after due notice to the commissioner of public lands 
or superintendent of public works, as the case may be. to use 
free of rent as much of any government land, not otherwise em- 
ployed, as shall be .advantageously cultivat<Hl by the teachers 
and pupils of any public school, and the teachers and pupils 
aforesaid shall have the right to continue to cultivate such gov- 
ernment land so long as the same shall not be otherwise dis- 
])Osed of by the commissioner of ])ublic lands, or superintend- 
ent of public works, as the case may be, or otherwise ordered 
by the department of public instruction ; and, in case of disposal 
of the same by the connuissioner of public lands or superintend- 
ent of public works, as the case may l)e, sufficient notice shall 
be given to enable the removal of improvements, and the gath- 
ering of growing crops, Avithout loss to the owners thereof. 

Sec. 227. OTHER LANDS. Whenever it shall deem the 
same desirable, the department of public instruction may also 
ac(]uire, on such terms as may be agreed upon, land other than 
government, that may be advantageously employed for the pur- 
poses herein stated. 

Sec. 228. PROFITS TO TEACHERS AND PUPILS. 
All net profits arising from agricultural and industrial pur- 
suits, undicr this chajiter, shall belong to the teachers and 



124 

pupils actually engaged in such pursuits, and shall be divided 
among the same in such proportions as the department of public 
instruction shall deem proper; but the provisions of this sec- 
tion shall not be deemed ap])lical)le to schools otherwise regu- 
lated by law. 

Sec. 229. PUBLIC SCHOOL LAWS RELATE TO THIS 
CHAPTER. All laws for the government, discipline and wel- 
fare of the 2)ublic schools of the Territory, shall in their opera- 
tion be construed to include the enforcement of the provisions 
of this chapter in relation to agricultural and industrial pur- 
suits in said schools. 



125 



APPORTIOJ^MENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS 11^ AMERICA. 

In the discussion on School Funds and their apportionment 
by E. P. Cubberly, the following points are given as the basis 
of distribution of school funds: 

1. Distribution with reference to taxes and wealth. 

2. Distribution with reference to total population. 

3. The school census basis. 

4. The enrollment and average membership basis. 

5. The daily attendance basis. 

6. The district and teacher basis. 

7. The teacher basis. 

The apportionment of school funds on the basis of taxes paid 
or property valuation is one of the earliest and poorest, of 
methods. It is really only a form of compulsory local taxation 
and has no educational value. The apportionment of funds ac- 
cording to the basis indicated in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 is in advance of 
number one. ' It is considered that the seventh, the teacher 
basis, is the most equitable single basis for the apportioning of 
school funds. 

Appoktionment of Schools Found in 83 Cities of AMEFacA. 

(Report of Commissioner of Education, U. S.) 

An apportionment of money for the maintenance and opera- 
tion of city school system for specific purposes, expressed in 
the per cents, of the total expenditures. 

The cities from which reports were received are classified 
on the basis of population according to the census of 1900 into 
seven groups. 

First group : Cities having a population of more than 
1,000,000. 

Second group : Cities having a population of 500,000 to 
1,000,000. 

Third group : Cities having a population of 200,000 to 
500,000. 



126 

FiMirtli i;i'(>n|): ('itics having; a i)<)])iilati()n (if 100, 000 to 
200,000. 

Fifth i;i'(>ii]): Cities having a popnhition of 50,000 to 
100,000. 

Sixlh grdup: ('itics haA'iiiii,- a p()])nhition of 20,000 to 
50,000. 

Seventh gr(>n[): Cities having a })opnhition of 10,000 to 
20,000. 

As ail ilhistration, the three items, salaries paid high-school 
teaehers, eleiiientai'V-sehool teachers, and for sn])ervision in the 
cities naiiie(l run as folh>ws: 

('hicago, 7S..') |)er cent, of the total operating ex|)enses; Phil- 
adelphia, 7.'!.(i ])('!• cent. ; St. Lonis, 74.S ])er cent.; Boston, 
72.!*1> per cent.; llaltiinore, 77.1 ]ier cent. 

( 'oiiiparing the three items sejiaratelv: 

('hicag(>: 7.4 pei- cent., high school; (il.l per cent., eleinen- 
tarv teachers; D.S ])er cent., supervision. 

Philadelphia: !>.!> |)er cent., high school; 5(i.02 per cent., ele- 
meiLtar_\- teachers; 7.7 per cent., siipcr\'isi(vn. 

St. Lonis: (!.() per cent., high sehool ; 55.7 per cent., ele- 
mentary teachers; 12.5 per cent., supervision. 

l>(*ston: 12.57 jier cent., high school; 52. -'52 })er cent., ele- 
meiitai'v teacliers; S.07 per cent., supervision. 

lialtimorc: !» per c(.'nt., high school; (i2.5 per cent.. el(Mnen- 
tary teachers; 5.(1 j)er cent., su])ei'vision. 

The per cent. |)aid to liigh-school teachers, is: 

First group. . S.S Third group. . I'.O Sixth group.. {[.?> 
Sec(Hid group 1>.7 1^'ourtli group 10. S Seventh groiij) 14.3 

'i'otal paid elementary teachers: 

First group. . 5S.5 Third group.. 55.5 Sixth group.. 52.00 
Second group 5().S Fourth group 52..') SevcMith gi-ouj) 4(>.49 
Fifth group. . 54.0 



127 

Supervision costs in each respectively: 

First group . . 8.7 Third grouj). . 9.9 Sixth group. . 10.6 
Second group 9.1 Fourtli group 9,9 Seventh group 9.6 
Fifth grouj). . 11 .4 

Putting the three items, liigh-s<'h(M)l salaries, elementary- 
school salaries, and suptu'vision, unch-r the head of instruction, 
the ])ercentage of cost in eacli gi-ou]) of cities, is as follows: 

First grou]). . 70.0 Third group. . 74.4 Sixth group.. 73.9 
Second group 74.9 Fourth groujv 73.0 Seventh group 70.39 
Fifth group. . 75.2 

There is littk' fluctuation in janitor service taking the cities 
in groups as in the previous cases. Service costs: 

First group.. 7.5 Third, group. . 

Second group 6,4 Fourth gi'ou]) 

Fifth group. . 

In the department of repairs there seems to 1k' no determin- 
ing factor, judging from the outlay of each individual city, but 
by groujjs the mean averages are not so very divergent. The 
percentages are: 

Fii'st group. . 5.6 Third group.. 4.8 Sixth group.. 3.9 
Second group 5.5 Fourth group 3.9 Seventh group 3.0 
Fifth group. . 4.1 

As to the matter of free textbooks, there; is not sufficient data 
to warrant a general statement, yet from a partial investigation, 
it is estimated that, after the pui)ils are once supplied, 4 per 
cent, will be an adequate allowance for this item. There is no 
data as to whether the same care is taken of the free textbooks 
as when the parents supply them. 

The amount required for school supplies, judged entirely 
fi'om the reports submitted, can, with safety, be put at 3 per 
cent. 



6.8 


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128 
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130 
APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS. 

In Hawaii until 1894 the central government imposed a 
school tax that was collected and used in the district bv the 
school agent under the authority of the Department. If the 
local school tax sufficed for the local needs, the school was prac- 
tically independent in financial matters. If the school tax ex- 
ceeded the school needs there was a surplus that was allowed 
to accumulate, but if, as it was in the large majority of cases, 
there were not sufficient funds the legislative appropriation 
was drawn on to supply the deficiency. This was found to be 
imsatisfactory, and m 1894 all of the revenues were collected 
and deposited in the general treasury. Biennial appropria- 
tions were made for the schools. The items under the head of 
supervision and instruction were distributed according to a 
salary schedule prepared by the Department of Public Instruc- 
tion. The main features of this schedule are in accordance 
with the best practices on the mainland (Cubberly — School 
Funds and Their Apportionment). 

The practice previous to 1894 (Hawaiian Educational Re- 
port, 1900, on question of Local School Funds) was simply a 
first step in the development of our school system. It. is de- 
scribed as one of the earliest and poorest of methods and has 
no educational significance (Cubberly, page 83-92). 

Previous to 1894 the school agent laiew the amount of 
money at his disposal, although he was not allowed to use it 
at his own discretion. 

Since 1894 the school agent has not knoAni the amount of 
money available for use in his district, and in addition has not 
been able to use it at his own discretion. This has lessened his 
effectiveness, if he economized others reaped the reward, if he 
was lavish in his expenditures the Territory suffered. This 
has proven unsatisfactory. The school agents were generally 
men of large interests who gave up their time to the cause of 
education. Had they known the amounts available, the de- 
partment would have had the advantage of their expert knowl- 
edge of conditions and as a result the schools certainl}' would 
have been better cared for than they were under conditions 
Avhere the agent, shorn of his power of initiative and ignorant 



131 

of the amount at his disposal, was unable to map out his work 
or to carry out any definite policy. 

It is recommended that the amount appropriated under the 
head of ''School Supplies" be distributed among the schools ac- 
cording to a schedule prepared by the Department of Public 
Instruction. This schedule considers the number of teachers 
and the class and enrollment of the school. In this way each 
school agent and each supervising principal will know the 
amount available for his schools for the year and can then plan 
to use it to the best advantage. Economy or wise administra- 
tion will give definite and immediate results. The disadvant- 
ages under the system of "Local Funds" will be obviated and 
each school will get its share of taxes according to its needs 
and not according to the commimity's actual tax-paying power. 
This adjustment, it is felt, will appeal to the sense of justice 
in this community. Give each school its share of the money 
appropriated and if there is no^t sufficient for the needs of the 
w^ork then it is very clear that tlie appropriation should be in- 
creased to meet the needs. 

The authorities on the apportionment of school funds in 
America claim that the method, previous to 1894 was a crude 
way of apportioning the school funds of any community. The 
method now in vog-ue is an advance over that used previous to 
1894. In the matter of school supplies the lack of a well bal- 
anced schedule renders a good system less eftective than it 
would otherwise l>e. It is felt by this comimssion that the ap- 
portionment of the funds for school supplies according to a 
schedule based on the most approved methods should correct 
the chief defects in the existing plan and meet the reasonable 
demands of the taxpayer. 

The funds available for school purposes are apportioned in 
Hawaii as follows: 

a. The legislature by the act of appropriation apportions 

the fimds in a general way. 

b. The appropriation under the head of "Teachers and 

Supervisors" is distributed according to a schedule pre- 
pared by the Department of Public Instruction. 

c. The distribution of school supplies to localities and 

schools is left to the executive officers of the Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction. 



132 

THE QUESTION OF LOCAL FUNDS. (Report 1900). 

(Eeport of Former Supt. Atkinson.) 

Up to the year 1894 the school tax of each district was ex- 
pended in the district in which it Avas collected. After that 
year the law was changed and the school tax was absorbed into 
the general treasury. The theory was that the GoA^ernraent 
should be completely centralized, and that there would be an 
advantage to the general public. I considered the step a bad 
one at the time. I was then an executive employee of the 
Board. Time has shown that I was correct m my view. The 
l>utting of the local school funds into the general treasury has 
caused more friction and discontent in the outer districts than 
will be allayed for some years, and the Commissioners and 
Minister of Public Instruction, as he was called until annexa- 
tion took place, have had to bear the results of that discontent. 

Up to the time of this change in financial management, the 
school agent of each district, under bonds, took charge of the 
scliool fimd of his district. He administered this fund under 
the guidance of the Board of Education. He could not spend 
it as he saw fit; he could only spend money under authoriza- 
tion. In many cases, in fact in most cases, the school tax of 
the district did not suffice to pay the salaries of the teachers m 
that district, and as soon as the tax was exhausted the general 
fund for support of schools, voted by the Legislature, was 
drawn upon. But in some cases, especially where there were 
large plantations, the school fund more than paid the salaries, 
and a surplus was left over, which, being husbanded, sen-ed to 
build new school houses, when required, and repair those which 
were already in existence. I can well remember how much 
was able to be done out of the local school fund in Makawao, 
when Hon. C. H. Dickey first took charge as school agent. Also 
how well the Hamakua and ISTorth Kohala schools were kept 
in repair and painted under the agencies of Kufus Lyman and 
B. D. Bond. 

At the present time no school district can be forehanded, no 
school district can be economical in its management for the pur- 
pose of nursing a fund for its local improvement. The gen- 
eral school appropriation in the Legislature appears consider- 



133 

ably larger than it would if the school tax were spent in each 
separate district, and as I have said, there is justifiable dis- 
content in some districts which do not have their full school 
tax paid out in the district. 

I have had prepared a schedule of the school tax collected 
for 1900, and. also the expenditure upon schools for the same 
year according to districts and islands. It is worth careful 
study by any one taking an interest in the school system and 
the needs of the future. 

School Tax and Expenditures foe. Each School District 
IN THE Territory of Hawaii. 

District School Tax Expenses on 

Schools 
Oahu: 

Honolulu $ 22,652.00 $102,568.11 

Ewa and Waianae 11,498.00 8,965.02 

Waialua 4,458.00 3,154.72 

Koolauloa 2,240.00 1,909.73 

Koolaupoko 2,876.00 4,113.21 



Total for Oahu $ 43,724.00 $120,710.79 

Hawaii. 

Hilo and ^rth Hilo $ 21,544.00 $ 24,877.08 

Puna 6,754.00 4,125.00 

Kau 3,820.00 5,942.20 

South Kona 1,270.00 8,270.64 

North Kona 2,850.00 10,584.14 

South Kohala 530.00 1,758.00 

l^orth Kohala 3,576.00 10,512.00 

Hamakua 7,328.00 10,389.00 



Total for Hawaii $ 47,672.00 $ 76,458.06 



134 

District School Tax Expenses on 

Schools 
Maui,, Molokai and Laxai : 

Lahaiiia and Lanai $ 5,072.00 $ 9,214.76 

Wailuku (5,390.00 10,127.75 

Makawao 4,748.00 16,541.60 

Hana 3,756.00 7,734.03 

Molokai 1,894.00 4,412.50 

Total for Maui, :Molokai 

and Lanai . $ 21,860.00 $ 48,030.64 

Kauai : 

Waimea and Niiliaii $ 6,390.00 $ 9,754.90 

Koloa and Lihue 8,788.00 8,071.75 

Kawaihau 3,522.00 3,970.33 

Hanalei 2,276.00 5,222.50 

Total for Kanai $ 20,976.00 $ 27,019.48 

From this table it will be seen that no Island is able to pay 
entirely out of the school tax for the school system. There are, 
however, five districts which "can do so, and would have money 
in hand. One of these districts is that of Puna, Hawaii, and 
this district has a distinct grievance under the present system. 
Years ago, before the kiss of the Prince of Industry aAvoke the 
Sleeping Beauty of agricultural possibility, the district was 
one which yielded the smallest school tax in the group. But 
with the development of the district the school tax has increased, 
as the school needs have increased. Last year the expenditure 
upon the district for school purposes was but $4,125, though 
the collection from school tax alone was $6,754, and the total 
tax collection of the district amounted to $31,748.75. 

'Now Puna is in dire need of school houses, but the Super- 
intendent and the Commissioners of Public Instruction have 
had no means of supplying Puna with the requisite houses, and 
what is just as necessary in a newly settled district, with cot- 
tages for teachers. And this has occurred, in face of the fact 
that the school tax from Puna not only paid for all its educa- 
tional expenses, but had over $2,500 surplus which might have 



135 

been used to erect buildings, instead of, as now, being depend- 
ent upon the good will of the plantation people for the prem- 
ises occupied. This, one would think, would bo sufficient com- 
mentary upon the system of centralization inaugurated in 1894. 

But Puna is by no means the only case in point. Take the 
district of Ewa and Waianae. The school tax amounted to 
$11,498, the expenditure for 1900 was $8,965. Here again 
is a surplus of $2,500. This district has had urgent need of a 
teacher's cottage at Oahu plantation, and a change of a school 
site at Waiawa. There has been no appropriation for the Com- 
missioners to draw upon, and the district has had to lose valu- 
able teachers in the one case, because they had no means of 
finding a proper and convenient home, and in the other there 
has been distinct loss of efficiency because the school has to be 
maintained in what is now an utterly unsuitable place. Yet, 
if the district had had partial control of its own school fund, 
it would have easily been able to make these improvements. 

Again take Waialua of Oahu. The school tax for 1900 was 
$4,458. The expenditures for school purposes was $3,154.72, 
and there would have been a surplus of $1,300 for the year. 
It is urgently necessary that the site of the school should be 
changed, owing tO' the changed conditions of the concentration 
of population. A site has been obtained from the Bishop es- 
tate, but nothing can be done until an appropriation is ob- 
tained from the Legislature for the erection of a new" school, 
by the sale of the old. school buildings, and the balance m hand 
a good stop toM'ards putting the new arrangement into proper 
order might have been made this year. 

What I have been dealing with is this year alone. Had there 
been accumulations for years past, the story would tell much 
worse than I have told it. Can any one wonder that there is 
discontent in certain districts? I must confess that I sympa- 
thize thoroughly with the peopie of Puna, of Ewa and Waia- 
nae, and of Waialua of Oahu. They have a. perfectly just 
grievance. At the same time it has not been the fault of the 
Ministers and the Commissioners any more than it is at pres- 
ent the fault of the Superintendent and the Commissioners, 
but it would personally be my fault, if in this present report 
T did not put my finger upon the spot, and show" that a trou- 
ble lies there. 



136 

I am quite aware of the arguments which can be brought 
fonvard in favor of the present system, but L believe them to 
be utterly unsound. I believe that tlie system prior to 1894 
was infinitely superior to anything that we have had since. 
]!'\'ot only did the change of system take away the local control 
of the funds, but it practically confiscated a large amount of 
school property. Little pieces of land, the rent from which 
served to fill the local coffers, were swept intO' the general fund. 
The bonds held by the School Department, the result of land 
sales and interest of which tlie law said was to be applied to 
educational purposes, were swept into the same insatiable maw, 
and the Educational Department was left a suppliant at the 
knee of centralization. I considered it wrong then ; now re- 
turning to the full administration of the Department, which 
I then served, I still consider it a wrong. It can never -be com- 
pletely undone, something can be done to remedy it. This I 
hope the corning Legislature will do, and I trust that it will have 
your Excellency's assistance. // our present educational sys- 
tem is curtailed and hampered, the entering wedge was made 
by those %vho engineered the change of 1894. 



ISTote. This difficulty under our scheme is overcome by the 
present county control of school buildings and the Territorial 
continuing appropriation. The Board of Public Instruction 
can include school agents in its appropriation scheme or coun- 
ties mav do so. 



137 
Amounts Appropriated 1905. 

Current Expenses. 

Furniture and Fixtures $ 6,400.00 

Industrial and Manual Training 3,000.00 

Book Fund 10,000.00 

Stationery and Incidentals 3,000.00 

School Supplies 8,000.00 

Repairing School Buildings : 

Oahu 10,000.00 

Hawaii 9,000.00 

Maui, Molokai and Lanai 6,000.00 

Material for Manual Work Girls' Industrial 

School 2,000.00 

Expenses and Material for Lace Making 3,000.00 

Support of Lahainaluna Seminary 15,000.00 

Support of Kona Orphanage 3,000.00 

General Expenses, Boys' Industrial School. . . 15,000.00 

General Expenses, Girls' Industrial School. . . 6,000.00 



138 



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139 

Assistants Elementary Schools : 

1st year $ 600 

3rd year 660 

6th year 120 

9th year 780 

12th year 840 

15th year 900 

Normal Critic Teachers : 

1st year $ 900 

2nd year 960 

3rd year 1020 

4th year 1080 

5th year 1200 

High and i^ormal Schools. 

First year, $1000. Second and third years, $1200. Fourth 
to tenth years, inchisive, $1500. After tenth year, $1800. 

Holders of JSTormal diplomas begin at salary of $660, and 
reach maximum in twelve years. 



140 



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141 

ENEOLLMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 100 AMERI- 
CAN CITIES. 

(Report 1907.) 

The type and variations of approximately the hiindred larg- 
est cities of the United States with respect to the number of 
students (in actual attendance) per teacher. 

As reported for 1907, the number of students in actual at- 
tendance per teacher in these cities ranges from 22 to 54. The 
most tyjDical condition is 32, classes of 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 
being nearly equally common. Half of the cities range between 
30 and 35. Nine-tenths of them are between 27 and 41. The 
case of 54 students per teacher is, we may hope, the result of 
error, the next worst record being only 46.7. Table E gives 
the type in detail. 

Table E. — FREQUEisrcY of Different Numbers of Pupils 
(in average attendance per teacher). 

Quantity: Pupils Frequency: No. 

per Teacher. of Cities. 

21 to 22.9 1 

23 to 24.9 1 

25 to 26.9 2 

27 to 28.9 14 

29 to 30.9 19 

31 to 32.9 20 

33 to 34.9 18 

35 to 36.9 11 

37 to 38.9 5 

39 to 40.9 4 

41 to 42.9 2 

43 to 44.9 1 

45 to 46.9 1 

47 to 48.9 

49 to 50.9 ■ 

51 to 52.9 1 

53 to 54.9 1 

Total 100 



142 
ENROLLMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF HAWAII. 

OvKlU'lfOWDKI) TvOt)j\[S lis REGULAlt PuBT.IC SciIOOLS OF HA- 
WAII, June, 1909. 

Eiii-olluient of over -±5 but under 50 57 rooms 

Enrollment of over 60 or over but under 55 38 rooms 

Enrollment of over 55 or over but under 00 25 rooms 

Enrollment of over 60 or over but under 70 24 rooms 

Enrollment of over 70 12 rooms 

l\)tiil 154 rooms 

154 out of 489 rooms, or 35% overcrowded. Eigures ap- 
proximately correct. 



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